B    3    3bl    035 


.-- 


T.RYMER 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 


PRESENTED  BY 

PROF.  CHARLES  A.  KOFOID  AND 
MRS.  PRUDENCE  W.  KOFOID 


THE  ANIMAL  CREATION. 


BY     THE     SAME     AUTHOR, 
Uniform  in  size  and  price. 


THE  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  BIRDS. 

Q  popular  Introduction  to  ©rnitfjologg. 


LONDON:  FREDERICK  WARNE  AND  Co. 


/  '          /  T 


HE 


ANIMAL  CREATION: 

» 

A  POPULAR 
INTRODUCTION    TO    ZOOLOGY. 


BY 


THOMAS    RYMER  JONES,   F.R.S., 

Professor  oj  Natural  History  and  Comparative  Anatomy,  in  King's  College^  L 

Examiner  in  Physiology  to  the  University  of  London  ;  Fullerian 
.:sor  to  the  Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain,  o°<r.,  e-v. 


^VITH      FIVE      HUNDRED     ILLUSTRATIONS. 


FREDERICK  V^ARNE  AND  Co., 

BEDFORD  STREET.  CO  VENT  GARDEN. 
NEW  YORK:  SCRIBXER,  WELFORD,  AND  ARMSTRONG. 


L 


INTRODUCTION. 


|N  the  present  volume  it  has  been  the  endeavour  of 
the  Author  to  give,  with  as  much  conciseness  as  is 
compatible  with  the  subject,  a  general  view  of  the  principal 
families  into  which  the  Animal  Creation  has  been  grouped 
by  modern  Zoologists,  together  with  such  notices  of  their 
characteristic  habits  and  instincts  as  are  to  be  gleaned  from 
various  writers  in  every  department  of  Natural  History. 
These,  it  is  hoped,  will  be  interesting  to  the  general  reader, 
and  at  the  same  time  afford  the  student  at  least  a  bird's- 
eye  view  of  the  extensive  field  upon  the  investigation  of 
which  he  is  desirous  of  entering. 

For  more  copious  details  relative  to  the  habits  and 
organization  of  the  different  classes,  the  reader  is  referred 
to  the  other  volumes  belonging  to  the  present  series,  and  to 
the  Author's  "General  Outline  of  the  Structure  of  the  Animal 
Kingdom." 


TO 

PROFESSOR    THOMAS     BELL,     F.R.S, 

ETC.,    ETC.,    ETC., 

THE   FOLLOWING   INTRODUCTION   TO  A  SCIENCE 
SO  ABLY  ILLUSTRATED    BY  HIS  WRITINGS, 


AS   A  TRIBUTE   OF   RESPECT   AND    ESTEEM 

BY 
HIS   FRIEND   AND   COLLEAGUE, 


THE   AUTHOR. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 
INTRODUCTION. 

Page 
Classification  of  the  Animal  Creation i 


CHAPTER  II. 
FIRST  DIVISION  OF  INVERTEBRATE  ANIMALS. 

RADIATED  ANIMALS  10 

ROOT-FOOTED  ANIMALCULES.    RHIZOPODA...  10 

Amoeba    n 

Rhizopods  ii 

Foraminifera n 

Phosphorescence  of  the  Sea 12 

Noctiluca  miliaris 13 

Importance  of  the  Rhizopods  in  Creation  14 


CHAPTER   III. 

SPONGES 

History  of  the  Sponge 

Dr.    Grant's    Observations    on  a  living 

Sponge 17 

Origin  of  Flints 19 


"•It 


CHAPTER  IV. 

CILIATED  ANIMALCULES.     INFUSORIA 19 

Remarkable  mode  of  propagation    21 

Importance  in  the  economy  of  Nature  ...  24 

CHAPTER  V. 

CORALLINES.     HYDROZOA 24 

Indefinite  reproduction   26 

Lasso-threads 27 

Club  Hydra    27 

Tube  Hydra  28 

Sea-Wreaths  28 

Bell  Corallines  29 

Acalephas    29 

Faculty  of  stinging 30 

Phosphorescence  31 

Propagation  by  Offshoots  32 

Tail  of  Velella  32 


Corallines  (continued). 

Page 

Globe  Beroe 33 

Nature's  steamboat  33 

Varied  Colour  of  the  Sea   34 

Food  of  the  Whale  34 

Hydrostatic  Acalephae    35 

Portuguese  Man-of-war 35 

Long  Cables  35 

Relationship  of  Hydrse  to  Medusae 36 

Hydra  tuba 36 

Campanularian  Zoophytes 36 


CHAPTER  VI. 

CORALS.  ANTHOZOA 37 

Gardens  of  the  Sea 37 

Polype  Flowers 37 

Alcyons  38 

Gradual  development  39 

Mouth  surrounded  by  Tentacles 39 

Madrepores 39 

Massive  Skeleton  of 40 

Stone-making  Corals  40 

Growth  of  Coral  Reefs  41 

Coral  Islands 41 

True  Corals  42 

Red  Coral,  Coral  fishing 42 

Mare's-tail  Coral  43 

Variety  of  form  of  Coral 43 

Bark-bearing  Corals 43 

Sea-Pens 43 

Organ-pipe  Coral,  its  brilliant  Colours  ...  44 

Actiniae  44 

Like  Compound  Flowers  44 

Actinia  gemmacea  45 

Venomous  Lasso-threads 47 

Effects  of  division  of  Actiniae  47 

Mushroom  Corals 47 


CHAPTER  VII. 

ECHINODERMATA 48 

Encrinites    49 

Their  abundance  in  a  Fossil  state 49 

Feather-star    50 


CONTENTS. 


Echinodermata  (continued).  Page 

Sea-baskets 50 

Snake-tailed  Star-Fishes 51 

"  Brittle-stars" 51 

Star-Fishes 52 

Cake-Urchins 53 

Sea-Eggs 53 

Their  mode  of  climbing  54 

Complicated  structure  of  Shell 54 

Sea-Cucumbers 54 

The  Cotton-Spinner 5, 

Siphon-Worms   5^ 

Sipunculus   Bernhardus 55 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

PARASITIC  WORMS.     EXTOZOA  -<"> 

Hydatid  -6 

Tape-Worms  56 

Flukes 56 

Guinea-Worm 57 

Hair- Worm 57 

Turbellaria 57 

Planarias 57 

Long  Sea-Worms 58 


CHAPTER  IX. 

SECOND  DIVISION  OF  INVERTEBRATE  ANIMALS. 

ARTICULATED  ANIMALS 59 

Includes  Creatures  existing  under  great 

diversity  of  circumstances   59 

Their  external    conformation   the   most 

obvious  character  of  distinction 59 

Worms   59 

Centipedes    5; 

Insects   59 

Scorpions,  Spiders,  &c 60 

Crabs,  Lobsters,  &c 61 

FIRST  CLASS  OF  ARTICULATED  ANIMALS...  63 

WORMS.     ANNELIDA 63 

Divided  into  three  Orders    64 

Abranchia 64 

Dorsibranchiata  64 

Tubicola 64 

First  Order — 

Abranchiate  Animals 64 

Divided  into  two  Families   64 

Setigera  and  Suctoria    64 

Earth-Worms  64 


Their    importance    in    the    economy   of 


Nature 

Naides  .............................................  65 

Leeches  .............................................  65 

Medicinal  Leech  .................................  65 

Second  Order  — 

Dorsibranchiate  Annelidar.s  ..................  66 

Their  splendid  appearance   ..................  66 

Their  variety  of  Weapons    ..................  68 

Sand-Worm  .......................................  69 

Nereids  .............................................  70 

Singular  structure  of  Mouth   ...............  70 

Erroneous  notions  concerning  Worms  ...  70 

The  Sea-Mouse   .................................  70 

Third  Order— 

Tubicolous  Annelidans  ........................  71 

Serpulse  .............................................  72 

Shells  of  Serpulae   ..............................  72 

Singular  Trap-door    ...........................  72 


Annelida  (continued).  Pas's 

Terebellae 72 

Construction  of  their  Residencs     —     72 

Sabella  alveolaris    72 


CHAPTER   X. 
SECOND  CLASS  OF  ARTICULATED  ANIMALS. 

CENTIPEDES.  MYRIAPODA 72 

Intermediate  between  red-blooded  Worms 

and  Insects  73 

Structure  of  Myriapods  74 

Myriapoda  remarkably  distinguished 

from  Insects  properly  so-called  74 

Two  Families  belong  to  the  Class 74 

Millepedes  and  Centipedes  74 

Millepedes,  how  distinguished  71 

Their  habits 74 

Centipedes  74 

Their  formidable  Mouth  75 

Giant  Scolopendra 75 

Forked  Centipede  75 

Electric  Scolopendra 75 


CHAPTER  XI. 
THIRD  CLASS  OF  ARTICULATED  ANIMALS. 

INSECTS 7=; 

How  to  study  Insects  77 

What  is  an  Insect  77 

Three  principal  portions  of  Body  77 

Divisions  of  Leg  of  Insect  77 

Wings  of  Insect  78 

Diversity  in  construction  in  instruments 

for  procuring  nourishment  79 

Mouths  of  Insects  divided  into  two 

Classes  79 

Their  formation  79 

Organs  of  Sense  in  Insects 81 

Eyes  of  Insects  81 

Respiratory  System  of  Insects  82 

Admirable  contrivance  for  preserving  the 

flexibility  of  their  Air-tube-. 83 

Extraordinary  strength  of  Insects 84 

No  Insect  in  its  winged  condition  per- 
mitted to  grow 85 

Metamorphosis  of  Insects  85 

SHIELD-WINGED  INSECTS.  ORDER  Couc- 

OPTERA 88 

Characteristics  of  Coleopterous  Insects..  88 
Divided  into  four  Sections,  according  to 

number  of  joints  in  Feet  88 

First  Section.  PENTAMRRANS 88 

Tiger  Beetles,  their  rapacity,  beauty, 

and  activity  89 

Dens  of  Larvae  89 

Ground  Beetles,  their  habits  89 

Bombardiers 89 

The  work  intrusted  to  the  Cannvora 

essential  to  the  well-being  of  Nature..  90 

Water-Beetles 90 

Their  predatory  excursions 90 

Their  Larvae  "  Water-Tigers"  go 

Equally  active  and  ferocious  91 

Insect  Scavengers  92 

Brachelytrous  Pentamerans 92 

Rove-Beetles  92 

Serricornes,  how  distinguished  92 


CONTEXTS. 


XI 


Insects  (continued).  Page 

Their  magnificence 92 

Vegetable  feeders  92 

Spring  Beetles,  for  what  remarkable 92 

The  Cucujo,  its  brilliant  light 92 

Glow-Worms,  their  luminosity  93 

Death-Watches  93 

Habit  of  calling  to  their  .Mates  93 

Ciavicornes  93 

Carrion  Beetles  93 

Sexton  Beetles,  their  remarkable  instinct  93 

Bacon  Beetles 94 

Palpicornes,  principally  aquatic 94 

Large  Water-Beetles 94 

Their  singular  table 94 

Lamellicornes,  how  distinguished  94 

Live  on  vegetable  substances 94 

Scavenger  Beetles  95 

Live  in  tropical  climates  95 

Second  Section.  HETEROMERANS,  how 

distinguished  96 

Melasomes,  for  what  remarkable  96 

Meal-grinders  96 

Taxicornes  96 

Stenelytra  96 

Trachelides,  how  distinguished  96 

Blister  Beetles 97 

Thiid  Section.  COLEOPTEROUS  TETRA- 

MERANS .*. 97 

What  Beetles  included  in  this  section  ...  97 

Snout  Beetles  98 

Weevils 98 

Diamond  Beetles  98 

Wood-eaters,  for  what  purpose  appointed  99 

Long-horned  Beetle  v 59 

Fourth  Section.  TKIMERANS 99 

Ladybirds  destroy  Aphides 99 

STRAIGHT-WINGED  INSECTS.  OKDER  OR- 

THOPTERA 100 

In  what  circumstances  they  differ  from 

Beetles  TOO 

Their  habits 100 

Earwigs 100 

Cockroaches 101 

Leaf  Insects,  their  singular  appearance..  101 

leaping  Orthoptera  102 

House-Cricket 102 

Grasshoppers  102 

Locusts,  formidable  by  their  numbers  ...  102 
Mole-Cricket,  singular  adaptation  of  its 

strength  to  the  habits  assigned  to  it  ...  103 
LACE-WINGED  INSECTS.  ORDER  NEU- 

ROHTERA,  how  distinguished  104 

Dragon-Flies,  their  brilliant  appearance, 

their  humble  guise  in  an  earlier  stage  . 

of  existence 104 

Predatory  habit> 105 

May- Flies,  "Duns  "and  "  Drakes."  105,  106 

Scorpion- Flies 106 

Ant-Lions 106 

Their  singular  pitfall 106 

Lace-winged  Flies 107 

Their  Larvae  named  "Aphis-Lions" 107 

Their  curious  disguise  108 

Stone-Flies  108 

White  Ants  108 

Congregate  in  societies 108 

They  work  concealed  from  observation...  109 

Sometimes  construct  towers 109 

Labourers  and  Neuters,  Winged  -Males 

and  Females 109 

Their  curious  economy 109 


Insects  (continued). 

MEMBRANE-WINGED  INSECTS.     ORDET:  Hv- 

MENOPTERA IIO 

Saw-Flies no 

Cuckoo-Flies    in 

Their  office  in  Creation m 

Gall- Flies   lay  their  Eggs  in  leaves  or 

tender  shoots    '. 112 

Second  Section  of  Hytnenopterons  Insects  112 

Ants,  their  societies    112 

Their  dwellings   113 

Wasps,  their  constructions  113 

Bees,  their  societies  114 

Their  different  employments  114 

Their  various  Cells 115 

Humble-Bees  115 

BEE  PARASITES.     ORDER  STREPSIPTERA...  116 

Stvlops  116 

Stylopized  Bees  118 

LEPIDOPTEROCS    INSECTS.       ORDEX   LEPI- 

DOPTERA     Il8 

How  recognizable  118 

Larvae,  Pupa?  119 

Classification  of  Lepidoptera 119 

Diurnal  Lepidoptera 119 

Butterflies 119 

True  Butterflies,  how  distinguished 119 

Chrysalids,  whence  their  name  120 

Crepuscularia  120 

Hawk-Moths  120 

Their  Caterpillars  and  Chrysalids 120 

Death's-head  Hawk-Moth  121 

Nocturnal  Lepidoptera 121 

Phalense 121 

Eombyces 121 

Silkworm,  Us  mode  of  life  on  the  T  '. 

berry  tree 122 

Tusseh  Silkworm  123 

Leaf-rollers  123 

Their  various  domiciles 124 

^ioth** 124. 

Pack-Moth  '. 124 

Feather-  Moths 124 

HEMIPTEROI/S  INSECTS.  ORDER  HEMIP- 

TERA,  how  divided 124 

Geocorysae  125 

HydrOCOrySSe     ... . ....    125 

Their  use  in  Nature  125 

Skip-jacks 125 

Water-boatmen    126 

Water-Scorpion   127 

PLANT-SUCKING  INSECTS.    ORDER  HOMOP- 

TERA,  structure  of 127 

Tree-hoppers 127 

Plant-Lice 127 

Coccidaj 128 

The  Cochineal  Insect 128 

The  Lac  Insect    128 

Manna   128 

Chinese  Tree  Wax 128 

Blight  Insects  128 

Lantern  Flies  129 

TWO-WINGED  INSECTS.     ORDER  DIPTERA...  129 

Gnats  and  Mosquitoes  129 

Transformations  of  Common  Gnat 129 

Birth  of  Gnat  an  interesting  spectacle  ...  130 

Crane-Flies  130 

Daddy-long-legs 131 

Whame  Flies    131 

Tsetse,  its  bite  poisonous  to  certain  ani- 
mals      131 

Chameleon  Flies 131 


Xll 


CONTENTS. 


Insects  (continued).                                         Page 
Phenomena  attending  their  Metamorpho- 
sis      131 

Wasp-Flies    132 

Rat-tailed  Larvae    133 

Gad-Flies  133 

Flesh-Flies    133 

Important  agents  in  the  police  of  Nature  134 

Domestic  Fly  134 

Spider  Flies 134 

Forest  Fly 134 

TUFT-TAILED    INSECTS.      ORDER  THYSA- 

NOURA     134 

Lepisma 135 

Spring-tails  135 

PARASITES.     ORDER  PARASITE  135 

Pediculus  135 

Ricinus  135 

INSECTS     WITH     IMPERCEPTIBLE    WINGS. 

ORDER  APHANIPTERA 136 

Fleas  136 

Chigoe   136 

Apterous  Insects 137 

Winged  Insects  137 


CHAPTER  XII. 

FOURTH  CLASS  OF  ARTICULATED  ANIMALS. 

ARACHNIDANS    long   confounded  with   the 

Insects  137 

Distinguished  by  very  conspicuous  cha- 
racters      137 

Three  principal  Divisions  of  Arachnidans  138 

Mites 139 

Scorpions  recognizable  by  the  peculiarity 

of  their  external  configuration    139 

Spiders,  how  distinguished  140 

The  implacable  foes  of  Insects   140 

The  effects  of  their  poison  instantaneous  140 
Various  purposes  to  which  the  threads  of 

Spiders  are  converted    141 

Mouse  Spiders 142 

Bird  Spiders 142 

Mason  Spiders 142 

Their  subterranean  Caverns 142 

Sedentary  Arachnidans 144 

Lurk  near  their  snares  144 

Rectigrades 144 

Tube-weavers 144 

Web  of  Garden  Spider 144 

Spiders  in  Rio  Janeiro  144 

Spiders  with  nets  in  community  145 

Tent-making  Spider  145 

Spiders  living  in  a  Shell    145 

Spiders  properly  so  called    145 

Water  Spider,  her  Diving-bell 146 

Thread-spinners,  care  of  their  Eggs 146 

Net-spreading  Arachnidans 147 

Saltigrades    148 

Vagabond  Arachnidans 148 

Wolf  Spiders  148 

The  Tarantula 148 

Leaping  Spiders 148 

Gossamer  Spiders   149 


CHAPTER  XIII. 
FIFTH  CLASS  OF  ARTICULATED  ANIMALS. 

CRUSTACEANS 149 

Articulated  Animals  breathing  Water  ...  149 


Crustaceans  (continued).  Page 

Land  Crustaceans,  their  wet  Gills 151 

Wood-Lice  fitted  for  a  damp  atmosphere  151 

Senses  of  Crustacea   151 

Their  periodical  moult  152 

Diversity  of  external  forms  of  Crustacea  153 
Lobster's  Claws,  one  an  anchor,  the  other 

a  cutting  instrument  154 

Crustaceans,  Division  of  155 

TEN-FOOTED  CRUSTACEANS.    ORDER  DECA- 

PODA    155 

Divided  into  three  groups 155 

MACROURA  155 

Sea  Cray-Fishes 155 

Lobsters 156 

River  Cray-Fish 156 

Prawns  156 

Their  interesting  history  156 

Shrimp  156 

BRACHYURA  (or  Crabs),  their  habits 157 

Spider  Crabs 157 

Swimming  Crabs 157 

Shore  Crabs 158 

Edible  Crabs,  they  plunder  by  night    ...  158 
Crabs,  their  remarkable  Metamorphosis.  159 

Racer  Crabs 159 

Beckoning  Crabs 160 

Cocoa-nut  Crab   160 

Land*Crabs  cutting  grass 160 

ANOMOURA  161 

Soldier  Crab 161 

Wonderful  adaptation  of  its  Limbs   162 

FOOT-MOUTHED     CRUSTACEANS.       ORDER 

STOMAPODA 163 

Mantis  Shrimp 163 

Opossum  Shrimps  164 

AMPHIPOD  CRUSTACEANS.     ORDER  AMPHI- 

PODA    164 

Their  importance  in  Nature  165 

Examples  of  the  abundant  happiness  of 

the  lower  Animals  165 

Sand-hoppers  165 

THROAT-FOOTED  CRUSTACEANS.  ORDER 

L^MODIPODA  166 

All  marine 166 

EQUAL-FOOTED  CRUSTACEANS.  ORDER 

ISOPODA 1 166 

Boring  Shrimp,  pierces  planks  of  Ships..  166 

Fresh-water  Shrimps 167 

Wood-Lice  167 

GILL-FOOTED  CRUSTACEANS.  ORDER 

BRANCHIOPODA  167 

Divided  into  two  sections 168 

Tufted-feet  Entomostracans 169 

Cyclops 169 

Common  Cyclops  169 

Cythereas 169 

Cyprides  169 

Daphniae  170 

Phyllopeds  170 

Fairy  Shrimps 170 

Salt-water  Shrimps 170 

SWORD-TAILED  CRUSTACEANS.  ORDER 

XIPHOSURI  170 

King  Crabs  170 

SUCTORIAL  CRUSTACEANS.  ORDER  SIPHON- 

OSTOMATA  172 

Pycnogons 172 

Fish-Lice  172 

Lerneans  172 

WHEF.L-ANIMALCULES.  ORDER  ROTIFERA  173 
Skeleton  Wheel-bearer 174 


CONTENTS. 


Xlll 


Crustaceans  (continued).  Page 

Ciliary  movement  174 

Eggs  of  Rotifera 175 

CIRRIPEDS.  ORDER  CIRRIPEDIA  177 

Remarkably  constructed  Limbs 177 

Their  casting-net i78 

Divided  into  two  Families  179 

Barnacles 179 

Acorn-Shells J79 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

THIRD  DIVISION  OF  INVERTEBRATE  ANIMALS. 

MOLLUSKS,  "Shell-Fish" 180 

Definition  of  Mollusks 180 

Heterogangliata 181 

CHAPTER  XV. 
FIRST  CLASS  OF  MOLLUSKS. 

POLYZOA  184 

Sea-Mats  184 

SearMoss 185 

Aviculariae 186 

Fluviatile  Polyzoa  187 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

SECOND  CLASS  OF  MOLLUSKS. 

TUNICARIES.      TUNICATA      l88 

Ascidians   189 

Beauty  and  delicacy  of  their  internal 

structure    189 

Salpians 189 

Pyrosoma,  its  dazzling  splendour  190 

Compound  Ascidians 191 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

THIRD  CLASS  OF  MOLLUSKS. 

ORDINARY  BIVALVES.     CONCHIFERA 192 

Scallop,  its  structure 192 

Its  Mantle,  Gills,  Mouth,  and  Hinge  ...  192 
Elaborate  mechanism  of  the  Gill-fringe..  192 
Classification  of  Conchifera 195 

First  Family — Oysters    195 

Common  Oyster 195 

Tree-Oyster 195 

File-Shells 195 

Scallops 196 

Pearl-Shells 196 

Pearl  Oyster — Pearl  fishery 196 

Second  Family — Mussels 197 

Their  Foot,  its  use's    197 

Pinna,  Byssus 197 

True  Mussels  197 

River-Mussels,  sometimes  enclose  Pearls  197 

Third  Family — Clams....  198 

Clam-Shells '..  198 

Giants  of  the  Bivalve  race  198 

Strength  of  their  Byssus 199 

Fourth  Family — Cockles 199 

Common  Cockle,  its   Foot  a  wonderful 
organ 199 


Mollusks  (continued).  Page 

Fifth  Family — Inclusa 200 

Razor-Shells 201 

Stone-borers,  their  excavations  201 

Pholades,  their  Dens 202 

Their  tools  for  boring 202 

Teredo,    its    destruction    of   submarine 
woodwork....  ..  202 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 
FOURTH  CLASS  OF  MOLLUSKS. 

BRACHIOPODA,  their  arms    203 

Contrivance  for  procuring  food  204 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

FIFTH  CLASS  OF  MOLLUSKS. 

GASTEROPODA 204 

Why  so  called 204 

Different  Orders  of,  how  distinguished...  205 

ORDER  PULMONIFERA 206 

Air-breathing  Gasteropods  206 

Terrestrial,  how  recognizable 206 

Slugs 206 

Snails 207 

ORDER  PECTIMBRANCHIATA 207 

Aquatic  Air-breathing  Gasteropods  207 

Their  Operculum  or  door 207 

Their  Eyes  on  Footstalks 208 

Curious  Egg-cases 209 

Wentle-trap 209 

Legend  of  the  Origin  of  the  Tyrian  dye.  212 

Its  changes  of  Colour 212 

Stromb-Shells  212 

ORDER  TUBULIBRANCHIATA 213 

Their  Tube-shell  and  door  213 

ORDER  SCUTIBRANCHIATA 213 

Keyhole  Limpets    214 

ORDER  TECTIBRANCHIATA 214 

For  the  most  part  naked  Slugs  214 

Sea-Hares 214 

ORDER  INFEROBRANCHIATA  215 

ORDER  CYCLOBRANCHIATA 215 

Limpets 216 

Coat-of-Mail  Shell,  Chiton  216 

ORDER  NUDIBRANCHIATA 216 

Naked-gilled  Mollusca  common  on  the 

British  coast 216 

Their  great  diversity  and  beauty  of  form  217 

Homed  Doris  217 

Tritonia  Hombergi 217 

Young  of  Nudibranchiate  Gasteropods...  217 

ORDER  HETEROPODA  218 

Their  fin-shaped  Foot  used  as  an  Oar  ...  218 


CHAPTER  XX. 
SIXTH  CLASS  OF  MOLLUSKS. 

ORDER  PTEROPODA  219 

Their  locomotive  apparatus 219 

Northern  Clio,  its  instruments  of  pre- 
hension    220 

Limacina  helicina,  its  exquisite  Shell    ...  220 

Hyalsea 221 

Cleodora,  its  luminosity    221 


XIV 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 
SEVENTH  CLASS  OF  MOLLUSKS. 

ORDER  CEPHALOPODA 221 

Their  remarkable  habits  and  appearance  222 

Their  ink  222 

Mechanism  of  their  Suckers  223 

Enormous  size  of  some  Cephalopods 224 

The  common  Poulpe,  its  terrible  aspect..  224 

Its  powerful  Arms  225 

Its  Chameleon-like  change  of  Colour  ...  225 

Its  amusing  stratagems 226 

Calamaries,  their  additional  Arms 226 

Their  plate  of  Horn  226 

Squids  used  for  bait  226 

Their  Eyes  226 

Hooked  Squids,  the  tenacity  of  their 

grasp 226 

Cuttle-Fishes  226 

Common  Cuttles,  their  ink  226 

Cuttle-Fish  Bone 227 

Eggs  of  the  Sepia  227 

The  Argonaut,  fiction  of  the  ancients 

respecting  it 228 

Nautilus,  its  chambered  Shell 229 

Characteristic  structure  of  Nautilus 229 

Its  food 229 


CHAPTER  XXII. 


231 
231 
232 
232 
232 


VERTEBRATE  ANIMALS   ...........................  230 

Distinguishing  characters  of  Vertebrate 

Classes 

Complete  Skeleton,  how  composed 
Nervous  System  of  Vertebrates  ............ 

Increased  perfection  of  the  Senses  ......... 

Blood  of  Vertebrata    ........................... 

Variations  of  its  temperature  the  cause 

of  important  differences    ..................  233 

Its  effect  upon  the  Instincts  and  Affec- 

tions of  different  races  of  Vertebrata.  .  .  233 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

FIRST  CLASS  OF  VERTEBRATE  ANIMALS. 

FISHES  234 

The.  infinite  variety  in  their  forms  and 

endowments 234 

Teeth  of  Fishes   235 

Fins  of  Fishes 235 

Food  of  Fishes 236 

Armour  of  Fishes    238 

Division  of  Osseous  Fishes — 

ORDER    ACANTHOPTERYGII.  SPINY-FINNED 

FISHES  238 

Perches 238 

Sea-Perch 239 

Basse 239 

Mullets  239 

Surmullet  239 

Mailed-cheeks 240 

Flying  Gurnards 240 

Squamipennes,  how  recognized 240 

Archers 241 

Shooting  Fishes  241 

Labyrinthiform  Pharyngeals  241 

Climbing  Perch   242 

Mackerels 242 


Fishes  (continued). 

Common  Mackerel  ..............................  242 

Mackerel  fishing  .................................  243 

Tunnies  .............................................  243 

Common  Tunny  .................................  243 

Important  fisheries  ..............................  243 

The  Madrague 

*""'"'""*" 


TheBonito    ......  ..... 

Sword-Fishes 
Centronotus 


244 

244 

244 

244 

Dolphin-Fish,  its  variety  of'tints   245 

Riband-Fishes 245 

Mugiloids 246 

Grey  Mullet 246 

ABDOMINAL  SOFT-FINKED  FISHES.    ORDER 

MALACOPTERYGII  ABDOMIXALES 246 

Carps 247 

Common  Carp 248 

Golden  Carp 248 

Barbels  248 

Gudgeons 248 

Tenches 248 

Breams  248 

Minnows   248 

Roaches 249 

Pikes 249 

Common  Pike  ....  ...  249 

Sea-Pike    250 

Gar-Fish    250 

Flying  Fishes  250 

Siluroids    250 

Sheat-Fish    251 

Electric  Silurus   251 

Salmons     251 

Common  Salmon 251 

Salmon  fishery 251 

Herrings 252 

Common  Herrings 252 

Their  periodical  migrations 252 

Herring-nets     252 

Sardine  252 

Sardine  fisheries 252 

Pilchard 253 

Sprat  253 

"Whitebait 253 

Shad 253 

Anchovies 253 

Common  Anchovy 253 

Anchovy  fishery  253 

Anglers 254 

Lophius 254 

Common  Angler,  its  curious  baits 254 

SUB-BRACHIAL  SoFT-FINNED  FlSHES.  ORDER 

OF  MALACOPTERYGII  SUB-BRACHIATI.  255 

Gadoids 255 

Cod  fishery  255 

Cod 255 

Haddock  255 

Whiting 255 

Coal-Fish  255 

Flat  Fishes   256 

Turbot   ...  256 

Brill    ..  256 

Sole i  256 

Holibut 256 

Plaice     256 

Flounders 256 

Dabs  and  Flukes    256 

Do  not  swim  like  other  Fishes    257 

Means  of  concealment   257 

Position  of  their  Eyes  257 


CONTENTS. 


xv 


Fishes  (continued).  Page 

Cyclopteri 258 

Lumpsucker 258 

Sucking-Fishes    258 

Remora 259 

FOOTLESS    SOFT-FINNED   FISHES.      ORDER 

OF  MALACOPTERYGII  APODES    259 

Their  chief  characteristic 259 

Eels 259 

Their  singular  journeys 259 

Conger  Eels 260 

Muraenae    .'. 260 

Gymnpti 261 

Electric  Eel,  its  electric  apparatus 261 

TUFT-GILLED    FlSHES.        ORDER   OF    Loi-HO- 

BRANCHI 261 

Sea-Horses  (Hippocampi) 261 

ORDER  OF  PLECTOGNATHI 262 

Gy mnodonts 262 

Jaws  furnished  with  a  species  of  beak  ...  262 

Globe-Fishes    262 

Why  so  called  262 

Their  curious  structure 262 

Sun-Fishes    262 

File-Fishes    263 

Balistes  : 263 

Trunk-Fishes    263 

DIVISION  II.     CARTILAGINOUS  FISHES — 
ORDER  CHONDROPTERYGII  (with  free  bran- 

chiie)  263 

Sturgeons,  their  general  form 264 

Caviar 265 

Spatularia 265 

Chimaeras  265 

(With  fixed  bronchia:) 265 

SLH-ORDER   OF   PLAGIOSTOMES     265 

Sharks    265 

White  Sharks   267 

Greenland  Shark 267 

Saw-Fishes    268 

Skates    268 

Torpedos   268 

SUB-ORDER    OF    CVCLOSTOMES 269 

The  Lamprey  269 

The  Sea-Lamprey  269 

The  River-Lamprey  269 

The  Lampern  270 

The  Hag-Fishes 270 

The  Ammocsetes 270 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 
SECOND  CLASS  OF  VERTEBRATE  ANIMALS. 

REPTILES 270 

Admirably  adapted  to  the  duties  imposed 

on  them 271 

Characters  of  Reptiles  272 

Eggs  of  Reptiles 272 

Grouped  under  four  principal  sections  ...  272 

CHAPTER  XXV. 

ORDER  AMPHIBIA 273 

Mud-Fish 273 

Footless  Amphibia 275 

Blind  Worms    275 

A.  wphibia  wit /tout  Gills  276 

Ail  exception  to  the  universality  of  Meta- 
morphoses   277 


Amphibia  (continued).  Page 

Amphiumas  277 

Gigantic  Salamander....                             .  277 
The  "Hell-bender"  277 

Amphibia,  i/uith  permanent  Gills  277 

Four  Genera  known — Axolptus,  Mono- 

branchus,  Proteus,  and  Siren 278 

Axolotle 278 

Snake-like  Proteus 278 

Its  curious  Branchial  organs    278 

Mud  Eel 279 

Batrachian  A  tnphibia  280 

Their  Metamorphoses    280 

Batrachia  divisible  into  two  sections 281 

TAILED  BATRACHIANS.     URODELA 281 

Terrestrial  Salamander... 281 

Great  Warty  Newt 282 

Smooth  Newt  283 

TAILLESS  BATRACHIANS.    ANOURA    283 

Frogs 28^ 

Curious  arrangement  of  their  Tongue...  284 

How  distinguished  from  Toads  284 

Tree-Frogs    284 

Toads 285 

Pipas  286 

ORDER  OPHIDIA 287 

First  Order  of  true  Reptiles    287 

Their  formidable  attributes 287 

Family  I. — Water-Serpents 287 

Sea  or  Pelagic  Serpents    288 

Fresh-water  Snakes    288 

Family  II. — Venomous  Serpents  288 

Their  poison  most  potent  289 

Poison-fangs 290 

Poison-gland 290 

Rattlesnakes 290 

Fer-de-lance 292 

Horned  Vipers 232 

Viper 292 

Family  111.-  Boas 293 

Boa  Constrictor,  Teeth  of. 293 

Special  contrivance  to  aid  deglutition   ...  293 
Anaconda  294 

Family  IV. — Harmless  Snakes  295 

Common  Ringed  Snakes  295 

Family  V.— Double  Walkers  296 

ORDER  SALRIA  296 

Lizards,  their  resemblance  to  Serpents...  296 

Classification  of  Saurian  Reptiles  297 

Saurians,  their  diverse  habits  297 

Transition  from  Serpents  to  Lizards  298 

Slow-Worm   298 

Glass  Snake 298 

True  Lizards     298 

Sand  Lizards   298 

Flying  Lizards     300 

Scinks 3<x> 

Galliwasp  3°° 

Monitors    3°° 

Guanas  3°° 

Geckos    3°° 

Chameleons  - 301 

Crocodiles,  how  distinguished 302 

ORDER  CHELOMA 3°3 

Arranged  in  four  principal  Families 304 

Turtles,  Structure  of  their  Limbs  304 

Tortoise-shell    3°5 

Leather-backed  Turtle  306 

Soft  Tortoises  3°6 

Marsh  Tortoises  3°6 

Land  Tortoises 3°6 


XVI 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

THIRD  CLASS  OF  VERTEBRATE  ANIMALS. 

Page 

BIRDS 308 

No  department  of  Nature  unfurnished...  308 

Internal  structure  of  Birds  308 

Their  hot  Blood  imparts  intense  vitality.  308 

Perfection  of  their  respiration 308 

Skeleton  of  Birds    309 

Peculiar  mechanism  in  the  Legs  of  Perch- 
ing Birds    310 

Feathers  of  Birds   3" 

Birds  oviparous    312 

Divided  into  seven  Orders  313 

ORDER  RAPTORES  or  ACCIPITRES 313 

Divided  into  Diurnal  and  Nocturnal  Birds 

ofPrey  3*3 

Diurnal  Birds  of  Prey    313 

Eagles,  how  distinguished    313 

Golden  Eagle  315 

Fisher  Eagles  315 

Falcons  315 

Vultures,  their  aspect 317 

The  Ossifraga  of  the  Romans     318 

Nocturnal  Birds  of  Prey  318 

Owls 318 

ORDER  PASSERES  319 

Divided  into  five  Tribes   319 

TRIBE   I. — DENTIROSTRES 320 

Shrikes  : 320 

Fly-catchers *.........  321 

Thrushes    321 

Nightingales 321 

Wrens     321 

Wagtails 321 

Titlarks 321 

TRIBE   II. — FISSIROSTRES 322 

•    Divided  into  two  Tribes,   Diurnal  and 

Nocturnal 322 

Diurnal  Fissirostres  322 

Swallows 322 

Swifts r. 323 

Nocturnal  Fissirostres  323 

Goatsuckers 323 

TRIBE   II.— CONIROSTRES  324 

Larks 324 

Titmice  324 

Finches  324 

Weavers,    Linnets,    Goldfinches,    Chaf- 
finches, Canary,  Bullfinch    325 

Crows 325 

Birds  of  Paradise   326 

The  Emerald  Bird  of  Paradise  326 

TRIBE   IV. — TENUIROSTRES  327 

Nuthatches  327 

Creepers 327 

Humming-Birds  327 

Hoopoes 327 

TRIBE  V. — SYNDACTYL/E    330 

Bee-eaters 330 

Kingfishers    331 

Hornbills  331 

ORDER  SCANSORES    331 

Peculiarity  in  the  outer  Toe  of  Birds  o/ 

this  Order 331 

Woodpeckers    332 

Their  remarkable  Tongue    332 

Wrynecks 332 

Cuckoos ; .' 333 

Toucans,  how  distinguishable 334 

Parrots  334 


Birds  (continued).  Page 

ORDER  GALLING  ....................................  335 

Divided  into  two  sections  .....................  335 

Gallinae  properly  so  called    ..................  335 


335 

330 


Peacocks 

Guinea-Fowls  ....................................  337 

Pheasants  ..........................................  337 

Barn-door  Fowl   .................................  337 

Curassows  ..........................................  337 

Grouse    .............................................  337 

Capercailzie  .......................................  339 

Second  Section  of  Gallinaceous  Birds  ......  339 

Pigeons  ................................................  339 

ORDER  CURSORES  ....................................  340 

Ostriches    ..........................................  340 

True  Ostriches  ....................................  340 

African  Ostrich    .................................  340 

American  Ostrich    ..............................  341 

Cassowary  ..........................................  341 

Bustards    ..........................................  341 

Apteryxes  ..........................................  342 

Shaw's  Apteryx   .................................  342 

ORDER  GRALLATORES  :  .............................  342 

Separated  into  four  Tribes  ..................  342 

TRIBE   I.  —  PRESSIROSTRES  ........................    342 

Plovers   ...........  ,  .................................  343 

Sandpipers  ..........................................  343 

Oyster-catchers   .................................  343 

TRIBE    II.  —  CULTIROSTRES     .....................    344 

Cranes    .............................................  344 

Herons  .............................................  345 

Storks     .............................................  345 

Spoonbills  ..........................................  345 

TRIBE   III.  —  LONGIROSTRES  .....................   345 

Ibis  ...................................................  346 

Scarlet  Ibis   .......................................  346 

Curlews  .............................................  346 

Snipes  ................................................  346 

Woodcock  ..........................................  347 

Turnstones    .......................................  347 

TRIBE   IV.—  NACRODACTYLES   ..................   347 

Jackanas    ..........................................  348 

Rails   ................................................  348 

Land-Rail  ..........................................  348 

Coots  .......  ...  ......................................  349 

Flamingoes   .......................................  349 

ORDER  PALMIPEDES  .................................  349 

TRIBE  I.—  BRACHYPTERES  ........................  350 

Divers    .............................................  351 

Grebes    .............................................  351 

Divers  properly  so  called  .............  .  .......  351 

Great  Northern  Diver  ........................  351 

Penguins   ..........................................  352 

Puffins    .............................................  352 

Penguins  properly  so  called  ..................  352 

Common  Penguins  ..............................  352 

King  Penguins  ....................................  353 

TRIBE   II.—  LONGIPENNES  ........................    353 

Petrels    .............................................  354 

Albatrosses    .......................................  354 

Sea-Gulls  ..........................................  354 

Terns  ................................................  355 

Skimmers  ..........................................  356 

TRIBE  III.—  TOTIPALMATJE   .....................    356 

Pelicans  .............................................  356 

Pelicans  properly  so  called  ..................  357 

Cormorants   .......................................  357 

Frigate  Birds    ....................................  357 

Gannets  .............................................  357 

Tropic  Birds  .......................................  357 


CONTENTS. 


xvii 


Birds  (continued).  Page 

TRIBE  IV.— LAMELL1ROSTRES   35$ 

Ducks 358 

Swans 358 

Geese 358 

True  Ducks 358 

Periodical  migrations  of   358 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 
FOURTH  CLASS  OF  VERTEBRATE  ANIMALS. 

MAMMALS    359 

Essential  character  of    359 

Classification  of,  on  what  based 361 

Connecting-link  361 

SUB-CLASS— OVO-VIVIPARA 361 

ORDER  I. — MONOTRBMATA  361 

Duck-billed  Platypus 362 

Porcupine  Ant-eater  363 

ORDER  II. — MARSUPIALIA  (Pouched  Quad- 
rupeds)    363 

For  what  remarkable 363 

Kangaroos    364 

Opossums 364 

Dasyuri 365 

Phalangers    365 

Bandicoots    366 

Mynnecobius  366 

Wombat 367 

Carnivorous    Marsupialia    very  few    in 

number  367 

Zebra  Wolf  367 

SUB-CLASS  II.—  PLACEXTALIA 368 

Placental  Quadrupeds  368 

ORDER  CETACEA   368 

Cetacea  are  Mammals  deprived  of  hinder 

Limbs 370 

They  breathe  Air    370 

Their  Blood  is  hot.. 37° 

"Blubber"  370 

SECTION    I.— ORDINARY   CETACEANS 37* 

Dolphins  properly  so  called 372 

Common  Dolphin   372 

Porpoises  372 

Common  Porpoise  372 

Grampus    372 

Narwhals  372 

Sea-U nicorn 372 

SECTION    II.—  TRUE    WHALES     373 

Whale's  head  exceedingly  large 373 

Cachalots  373 

Whalebone  Whales 375 

Whalebone  forms  a  kind  of  sieve    375 

SECTION    III.— HERBIVOROUS  CETACEA 375 

Have  Teeth  with  flat  crowns  375 

Sea-Cows  376 

Dugongs    376 

ORDER  PACHYDERMATA 377 

SECTION  OF  PROBOSCIDIAN  PACHYDERMS  .  378 

Elephants 378 

Indian  Elephants    379 

African  Eiephants  379 

SECTION   OF  ORDINARY   PACHYDERMS   379 

Hippopotamus .  379 

H°gs  380 

Rhinoceros    381 

Tapirs _ ","„  381 

SECTION   OF   SOL1PEDES 382 

Horses    ".  382 

Ass  "',"'„  382 


Mammals  (continued).  Page 

Zebra  383 

Quagga 383 

Onager  384 

ORDER  RUMINAKTIA  384 

Divided  into  two  sections.....  385 

RUMINANTS   WITHOUT   HORNS     385 

Camels   385 

Llamas  387 

Alpaca    387 

Vicunia  ..  387 

Musks    388 

Other  Musks  have  no  Musk-pouch    388 

RUMINANTS  WITH  HORNS 388 

Horns  cf  three  kinds 388 

RUMINANT    WITH     HORNS     PERMANENTLY 

COVERED  WITH  HAIRY  SKIN 390 

Giraffe   390 

RUMINANTS  WITH  DECIDUOUS  HORNS* 391 

Stags  391 

RUMINANTS  WITH  HOLLOW  HORNS     391 

Antelopes 392 

Goats 392 

The  genus  Sheep  393 

Argali 393 

The  genus  Ox 394 

The  Common  Ox  394 

The  Auroch 395 

Bison 395 

Buffalo  395 

Cape  Buffalo  395 

\ak 396 

Musk  Ox  397 

ORDER  RODENTIA 397 

Live  on  the  harder  parts  of  vegetables...  397 

Chisel-like  Teeth 397 

Rodents  are  timid  and  feeble 397 

Beavers 398 

Classification  of  Rodentia 309 

Musk-Rat  of  Canada 400 

Water-Rat  401 

Lemmings 401 

Donnicdf. 401 

Rats  401 

Hamsters  , 401 

The  Harvest  Mouse  401 

The  Squirrels  402 

Common  Squirrel  402 

Flying  Squirrels  404 

Porcupines  404 

Common  Porcupine  404 

The  Hares  404 

The  Common  Hare  404 

The  Rabbit  404 

Rat  Hares 405 

Cavies 4°5 

Capybara  4°5 

Guinea  Pigs 4°5 

Agoutis  4°5 

Jerboas  405 

ORDER  EDENTATA  407 

Includes  all  Quadrupeds  having  separate 

Toes,  without  incisor  Teeth 4°7 

Sloths,  their  structure  adapted  to  their 

mode  of  life  407 

Armadillos 408 

Ant-eaters 409 

Tamanoir  or  Ant-Bear  409 

Scaly  Ant-eaters 411 

Cape  Ant-eaters  411 

Ground  Hog 411 

Old  age  permitted  to  Man  alone 411 


XVI 11 


CONTENTS. 


Mammals  (continued).          .  Page 

ORDER  CARNIVORA   .................................  411 

Carnivora,  how  distinguishable  ............  411 

Teeth  .................  .  .................................  412 

Canine    .............................................  412 

False  Molars    ....................................  412 

Lacerator  .................  '...'.  .....................  412 

Blunt  Molars    ....................................  412 

Differences  in  the  Teeth  of  Carnivora  ..    412 
Differences    in    the    structure    of   their 
hinder  Feet  ....................................  412 

PLANTIGRADE  CARNIVORA  .....................  413 

Bears  ................................................  413 

White  Bear  .......................................  413 

Racoons  .............................................  414 

Badgers  .............................................  414 

Common  Badgers    ..............................  414 

Glutton  ............................................  414 

IGITIGRADE    CARNIVORA,    how    distin- 
guished in  walking  ...........................  415 

Divided  into  Groups  ...........................  415 

Vermiform  Carnivora  ...........................  415 

Polecats  .............................................  415 

Common  Polecat  .................................  415 

Ferret  ................................................  417 

Weasel   .............................................  417 

Ermine  .............................................  417 

Martens  .............................................  418 

Sable  Marten   ....................................  418 

Skunks  .............................................  418 

Otters  ................................................  418 

Sea-Otter  ..........................................  419 

Second  Group  of  Digitigrade  Carr.ivora, 
how  characterized  ...........................  419 

The  Dogs  ..........................................  419 

Domestic  Dog  ....................................  419 

Wolf   ................................................  419 

The  Foxes  ..........................................  420 

The  Civets  ....................  ......................  420 

The  Civet  properly  so  called   ...............  420 

The  Ichneumon  .................................  421 

Third  Group  of  Digitigrade  Carnivora...  421 
Separated  into  — 

Hyaenas  .............................................  421 

How  distinguishable  ...........................  421 


421 
421 
422 
423 
424 


Cats 

Most  formidably  armed  of  all  Mammalia 

Silent  tread  of  Cats 

Lion 

Royal  Tiger 

Jaguar  or  American  Tiger   ..................  424 

Panther  .............................................  425 

Leopard  .............................................  425 

Lynx  ................................................  426 

Common  or  Domestic  Cat    ..................  426 


Mammals  (continued).  •  Page- 

AMPHIBIOUS  CARNIVORA 426 

Divided  into  two  Groups 426 

Seals 426 

Morse  or  Walrus     427 

ORDER  INSECTIVORA 428 

Shrews  428 

Hedgehogs   429 

Common  Hedgehog   420 

Moles 429 

Their  admirable  conformation 430- 

•  Hand  of  Mole 430 

ORDER  CHEIROPTERA  430 

Mammiferous  destroyers  of  Insects  not 

restricted  to  surface  of  ground    430 

Bats 431 

Divided  into  several  families 431 

Fox  Bats    431 

Spear-nosed  Bats    431 

Vampire  Bats    432 

Horse-shoe  Bats 432 

Common  Bats  432 

ORDER  QUADRUMANA 433 

How  distinguishable  433 

Formed  for  living  in  trees 433. 

Flying  Cats  435 

Fox-headed  Monkey  (Lemur)    435 

Sloth  Monkeys 436 

Marmozets    436 

Monkeys  of  the  American  continent,  how 

distinguished    436 

Differ  in  conformation  of  Tail 436 

Capuchin  Monkeys 436 

Tail  prehensile 436 

Sakis  436 

Tail  not  prehensile 436 

Capuchin  Monkey  includes — • 

Howling  Monkeys 436 

Spider  Monkeys  437 

American  Monkeys 437 

Tabular  arrangement 438 

Cynocephali 438 

Mandrils    439, 

Macacus    439 

Semnopithecus 439 

Guenons,  or  Long-tailed  Monkeys    440 

Magots  440 

Gibbons 441 

Siamang 441 

Gorilla    442 

Orang-outang  443 

Chimpanzee 443 

ORDER  BIMANES    444 

Man    444 

Conclusion    445 


LIST   OF   PLATES. 


Fig.  Page 

1.  Volvox 5 

2.  Microscopic  Occupants  of  a  Leaf  of  Duck- 

weed            7 

3.  Vegetable     Forms    of    Microscopic     Or- 

ganisms      9 

4.  Amoeba n 

5.  Rhizopods       12 

6.  Noctiluca  miliaris      13 

7.  Sponges 1 6 

8.  Framework  of  Sponge     17 

9.  Flint  Crystals  of  Sponge     

10.  Sponge  in  action        

11.  Halichondria  oculata    

12.  Paramecium,  &c.       

13.  Swan-neck  and  its  Divisions 

14.  Coleps  and  Chilomonns    

15.  Vorticellse        

16.  Vaginicola 23 

17.  Long-armed  Hydra      25 

18.  Hydra  vividis     26 

19.  Coryne      27 

20.  Tubularia  indivisi      28 

21.  Sertularia  operculata    29 

22.  Laomedea    29 

23.  Jelly-Fish        30 

24.  Sarsia    31 

25.  Thaumantias 32 

26.  Velella 32 

27.  Cydippe 33 

28.  Food  of  the  Whale 34 

29.  Physalia 35 

30.  Turns  and  its  Young       

31.  Madrepores     

32.  Alcyon 

33.  Polypes  of  Alcyon 

34.  Madrepore 

35.  Cell  of  Madrepore 

36.  Red  Coral    

37.  Isis     

38.  Sea-Fan  and  Sea-Pen      43 

39.  Organ-pipe  Coral 44 

40.  Actinia 45 

41.  Animal  Flowers     46 

42.  Fungia 48 

43.  Fossil  Lily-stones 49 

44.  Echinodermata 50 


Fig. 

48.  Sucker  of  Urchin     

49.  Spine  of  Echinus,  segment  of  section 

50.  Holothuriae       

51.  Hermit  Sipunculus     

52.  Cysticercus       

53.  Leech      

54.  Divisions  of  a  Beetle      

55.  Scorpion  and  Centipede    

56.  Common  Crab 

57.  Nerves  of  Leech  and  Cockchafer   .  . 

58.  FootofNais     

59.  Throat  of  Leech  laid  open       

60.  Tooth  of  Leech  magnified    

61.  Cocoons  of  Leech       

62.  Pushing-poles  of  Serpula      

63.  Sand-Worm 


Page 
53 

-.     54 
55 


45.  Brittle-star       

46.  Sun-star  (solaster  papposa) 

47.  Green-pea  Urchin 


68 

69 

64.  Sea-Mouse 71 

65.  Serpula 71 

66.  Terebdlla  medusa    72 

67.  Julus       74 

68.  Hind  Leg  of  Bee    78 

69.  Wing  of  Dragon- Fly 78 

70.  Parts  of  the  Mouth  of  an  Insect 79 

71.  Mouth  of  a  Beetle       80 

72.  Various  Antennas     80 

73.  Eyes  of  Bee 82 

74.  Compound  Eye  of  a  Dragon- Fly        ...         82 

75.  Spiracles  of  Insects     83 

76.  Air-pipe  of  Fly 83 

77.  Metamorphoses  of  Butterfly    85 

78.  Larva  of  Tiger-Beetle 89 

79.  Water-Beetle        90 

80.  Larva  of  Dyticus     91 

81.  Death-watch  Beetle    93 

82.  Cockchafer  and  Larva 95 

83.  Goliath  Beetle  and  Hercules  Beetle      ...     95 

84.  Blister  Beetle 97 

85.  Copper-coloured  Weevil    97 

86.  Nut-Weevil       97 

87.  The  Stag-horned  Prionus  and  Diamond 

Beetle      98 

88.  Ladybird  in  its  stages        99 

89.  Earwig  on  the  wing        101 

90.  Mantis    101 

91.  Locusts      103 

92.  Mole-Cricket        103 

93.  Dragon-Fly      104 

94.  Pupa  of  Dragon- Fly 105 

95.  Larva  of  Ephemeron  and  section  of  its  Cell  105 


21 X 


LIST  OF  PLATES. 


Fig. 
96. 
97- 


Page 
.   106 
107 


99- 
100. 

1OI. 

IO2. 
I03. 
I04. 
105. 

106. 
107. 
108. 
109. 
no. 
in. 

112. 

"3- 
114. 


11. 
117. 
118. 
119. 

120. 
121. 
122. 
I23. 
124. 
I2|. 
126. 
127. 
128. 
I29. 
I30 
I30* 
I3I- 
131* 
132. 

133- 


136. 
137- 
138. 
139- 
140. 
141. 
142. 

143- 
144. 
145- 
146. 

J47- 
148. 
149. 
150. 
151- 
152- 
153- 
154- 

HI: 


159- 


May- Flies  in  sunset  dance     ... 

Circular  Ditch  of  Ant- Lion        

Lace-winged  Fly,  manner  of  depositing 

Eggs       

Aphis- Lion 

Worker  Termite     

Soldier  Termite,  and  jaws  of  the  same, 

magnified      

Section  of  Nest  of  Termes  bellicosus  ...   108 

Male  Termite 109 

Queen  Termite 109 

Pupa-Case,  Larva,  and  Fly  of  Caddis- 

Worm 

Saw  of  Saw-Fly    .. 

Gall-Fly       

Working  Ant,  and  portion  of  Ant-hill. 

Festoon  of  Wax-makers 

Proboscis  of  Honey-Bee      

Honeycomb,  with  Male,  Worker,  and 

Royal  Cells      

Grub  in  Cell    

Pupa     

Humble-Bees  —  Male,     Female,     and 

Worker      

Stylops     

Female,  Pupa,  and  Male  of  Stylops    ...   117 

Scales  of  Butterfly's  Wing 118 

Comma  Butterfly      119 

White  Hawthorn  Butterfly 

Pupa  of  Vanessa        

Unicorn  Hawk-Moth 

Death's-head  Hawk-Moth      

Silkworm  on  Mulberry-leaf 
Female  Silkworm  Moth  and  Eggs 
Cocoon  of  Tusseh  Silkworm 

Leaf-rolling  Caterpillar 

Suspended  Leaf-tents 

Larva  of  Clothes-Moth  in  its  Case 

Field-Bug       

Metamorphoses  of  Water-Boatman 
Water-Scorpion,  different  states  of  Nepa  126 

Lime-tree  Aphis 127 

Cochineal  Insect    128 

Larva  of  Gnat    130 

Escape  of  Gnat  from  its  Pupa-case  ...       130 

Metamorphoses  of  Plume-Gnat     130 

Pupa  and  Insect  of  Chironomys       ...       131 

Larva  of  Stratomys 132 

Wasp-Flies      132 

Gad-Flies     133 

Metamorphoses  of  Flesh-Fly     ...     y.       134 

Domestic  Fly     ...     134 

Arctic  Spring-tail 135 

Louse    135 

Metamorphoses  of  the  Flea       136 

Spiders 137 

Head  of  Cheese-Mite 139 

Nervous  System  of  Spider     140 

Fang  of  Spider      140 

Garden  Spider 141 

Spinning  Apparatus  of  the  Spider    ...       141 

Trap-door  Spider       143 

Nest  of  Trap-door  Spider 143 

Trap-door  opening  by  a  lever        143 

Section  of  Nest      143 

The  Lyes  of  Spider 144 

Nest  of  House-Spider 146 

Foot  of  Spider 147 

Crab  covered  with  Oysters 153 

Common  Lobster       ....    154 

Young  of  Crab       158 


107 
107 
108 

108 


no 
III 

112 

"3 
114 

114 

"5 
"5 
"5 

116 
116 


119 

120 
120 
121 

122 
123 
I23 
I23 
I24 
124 
125 
I'M 


Fig.  Page 

160.  First  Stage  of  Shore-Crab      158 

161.  Second  Stage  of  Shore-Crab      158 

162.  Third  Stage  of  Shore-Crab    159 

163.  Soldier  Crab  occupying  an  empty  Shell     162 

164.  Soldier  Crab  removed  from  its  Shell    ...  162 

165.  Mantis  Shrimp       163 

166.  Opossum  Shrimp        164 

167.  Talitrus — the  Sand-hopper 165 

168.  Caprella       166 

169.  Limnoria  terebrans       167 

170.  Water-Fleas        168 

171.  Marine  Entomostraca 168 

172.  Fairy  Shrimp     170 

173.  King  Crab       171 

174.  Pycnogon    172 

175.  Lernean    172 

176.  Skeleton  Wheel-bearer    174 

177.  Rotifera    175 

178.  Brachionus 176 

179.  Cirri  of  Barnacle 178 

180.  Young  of  Barnacle    178 

181.  Barnacles ..       180 

182.  Acorn-Shells  on  the  Shell  of  a  Whelk  ...  180 

183.  Flustra  foliacea      184 

184.  Cells  of  Flustra  magnified      185 

185.  Eowerbankia 186 

186.  Cellularia  avicularia 187 

187.  Plumatella 187 

188.  External  form  of  Ascidia 188 

189.  Diagram  of  structure  of  Ascidian     ...       189 

190.  Salpa  maxima     190 

191.  Pyrosoma 191 

192.  Compound  Ascidian — Starry  Botryllus     191 

193.  Scallop 193 

194.  Venus  Chione 194 

195.  Spined  Venus  194 

196.  Lima 196 

197.  Great  Scallop      196 

198.  Animal  of  Mussel 197 

199.  Pinna    198 

200.  Mussels     198 

201.  Clam-Shell 199 

202.  Tellina      200 

203.  The  Sandgaper 200 

204.  Saxicava 201 

205.  Animal  of  Razor-Shell     201 

206.  Pholades      202 

207.  Ship-Worm  and  its  Shell        202 

208.  Brachiopod      203 

209.  Shelly  Framework  of  Brachiopod 204 

210.  Volute  crawling      205 

an.   Snails  and  Slugs        206 

212.  Garden  Snail 207 

213.  Linnams  auricularis 207 

214.  Planorbus  corneus 207 

215.  The  Whelk,  showing  its  Operculum     ...  208 

216.  The  Wentle-trap    209 

217.  Tiger,  Cowrie,  Harp,  and  Cloth-of-(Jo!d 

Cone 210 

218.  Young  Cowrie        210 

219.  Money  Cowrie,  adult       210 

220.  Cassis  tuberosa       211 

221.  Thorny  Woodcock 211 

222.  Granulated  Trochus      212 

223.  Pelican's-foot  Strombus 212 

224.  Vermetus 213 

225.  Fessurella  reticulata 214 

226.  Sea-Hare 214 

227.  Phyllidia     215 

228.  Limpet      216 

229.  Tufted  Chiton    216 


LIST  OF  PLATES. 


xxi 


Fig. 
230.    Crowned  Eolis       
231.  Tritonia  Hombergi      

Page 
216 
..  217 

fig.                                                                f 

age 
280 
281 
282 
282 
283 
284 
285 
285 
286 
287 

289 
290 
290 
291 
291 
292 

293 
294 

295 
295 
296 
296 
298 
299 
299 
300 
301 
301 
302 
302 
303 
3°4 
305 
306 
307 
3°7 
309 
309 
3i5 

316 
316 
3*7 
3i8 
320 
321 
321 
322 
322 
323 
324 
325 
326 
327 
327 
328 
328 
329 
329 
330 
33i 
332 
333 
333 
333 
334 
334 
337 

«8 

302.  Skeleton  of  Salamander  

232.  Horned  Doris  

233  Young  of  Eolis 

217 
217 

234.   Carinaria  
235.  Cymbuiia  and  Clio    
236    G'iss  Shells 

..  220 

221 

308.  Toad     

238.  Structure  of  Suckers  of  Cuttle-Fish... 

223 
225 

240  Cuttle-Shell  

227 
.    227 
228 

311.   Heads  of  Poisonous  Snakes  of  different 

241.  Cuttle-Fish  and  Eggs  

243.  The  Pearly  Nautilus  •  
244.  Skeleton  of  Haddock  
245  Scales  of  Fishes 

.    229 
235 
.    236 
238 
•    239 
239 
.    240 
241 

314     Rattlesnake     

246.  The  Perch  
247.  The  Basse  
248.  Red  Mullet  
249.  Oriental  Flying  Gurnard  
250  The  Shooting  Fish  

318.    Boa  Constrictor  watching  for  Prey  ... 
319     Skull  of  Python  

320.    Common  Ringed  Snake       

243 
244 

322.    Belly  and  Tail-shields  

254.  S\vord-Fish  
255  Pilot-Fish 

24* 
245 

256.  Coryphjena  
257  Scabbard-Fish 

24| 
.    246 
246 
.    247 
248 
.    248 
249 
.    249 
250 
•    251 
252 
•    253 
254 
254 

258.  Thick-lipped  Grey  Mullet  
259.  The  Carp  
260  The  Barbel 

328.    Chameleon      

261  Tench 

331     Skeleton  of  Turtle    

262  The  Pike 

332.    Hawksbill  Turtle  

263.  The  Gar-Fish  
264.  The  Flying-Fish  

335.    European  Marsh  Tortoise      
336.   Galapagos  Tortoise       

266.  The  Common  Trout  
267  The  Herring 

269  Marbled  Angler 

270.  The  Angler  
271  The  Cod 

255 
256 

341.    Golden  Eagle     

272.  Upper  side  of  the  Sole  

257 

274.  Lumpsucker  
275.  The  Remora  
276.  Sharp-nosed  Eel  
277.  Conger  Eel  

258 

'    21£ 
200 

.    260 
260 

26l 

345.   Grey  Shrike  

280.  Globe-Fish      
281.  Sun-Fish      
282.  File-Fish 

262 
.263 
263 
..    264 
265 
266 

Sir      T       I  *" 

352.    Long-tailed  Tit  and  Nest    

283.  The  Sturgeon  
284.  Northern  Chimasra  

266 
..    267 

"    268 
260 

287.  White  Shark        
aS3    Greenland  Shark 

289.  Thornback  

292.  River-Lamprey  
293.  Myxine  

"    *~? 
269 
..    270 
274 
••    275 
276 

"III 

..    279 
279 

362.   Foot  of  Parrot  and  of  Woodpecker... 
363.  Great  Black  Woodpecker        

295.  Two-lined  Caecilia     
296.  Two-toed  Amphiuma    
297.  Gigantic  Salamander        

fifi'    TC      1  h     1-   H  T 

3     •   :|jeej   e^T\T 

368    Peacock                      

299.  Proteus  

369.   Hastings's  Trapogan,  Argus  Pheasant, 
and  Crowned  Pigeon  

loo.  Skeleton  of  Siren  ... 

XXII 


LIST  OF  PLATES. 


Fig. 

Page 

Fig.                                                                       A 
430.  Stag's  Horn  in  successive  years     
431    Giraffe               

°(ige 
388 
390 
39  r 
392 
393 
393 
394 
394 
395 
396 
396 
397 
398 
400 
401 
402 
402 
403 
403 
404 
405 
406 
406 
408 
409 
410 
410 
412 
413 
414 
415 
417 
418 
419 
420 
421 
422 
423 
423 
423 
424 
42.5 
425 
426 
427 
428 
429 
430 
430 

432 
432 
434 
435 
437 

439 
440 
441 
442 
443 

339 

340 

433                P 

34i 

435.   Sheep  of  Palestine        
436.  Head  of  Argali  or  Wild  Sheep      

343 

438.  American  Bison  

344 

381    Ibis    

345 
••  346 

441.  Musk  Ox  

442.  Skull  of  Porcupine    

347 

•385    Land-Rail 

348 

446.   Nest  of  the  Harvest  Mouse   

350 

.  35i 
352 

448.  Rocky  Mountain  Flying  Squirrel  

380    Puffin 

391.  Stormy  Petrel  

354 

393.  Common  Tern        
394.  Cormorant   
•305.  The  Gannet     
396.  The  Wild  Duck  
•397.  Beak  of  Duck  
398    The  Duckbill 

355 
.   356 

357 
•   358 
359 

'  3*2 

362 

.  3°2 
363 

453.  Three-toed  Sloth  and  Giant  Armadillo 
454.  Weasel-headed  Armadillo       
455-  Gre.it  Ant-Bear                             

456.   Manis    
457.  Skull  of  Tiger        
458.  Bear 

399.  Burrow  of  Ornithorynchus  

459.  Polar  Bear      
460.  Badger  
461.  Weasel      

401.  Common  Kangaroo       

462.  Otter     

36S 

•  3°5 

366 
.  366 

463.  Wolf 

464.   Fox        

465.  Civet 

466.   Hyaena  

4°  '  ,y^    , 

367 
.  368 

408    Zebra  Wolf 

468    Skeleton  of  Lion 

409.  Troop  of  Dolphins,  Manatee  in  the 

469.  Lion  
470.  Tiger                             .... 

410.  Bones  of  the  Fin  of  a  Dolphin  
411.  Dolphin        

37i 

•  372 
373 

471.  Jaguar      

473.  Foot  of  the  Seal.    Skeleton  of  the  same 
474.  Harp  Seal  and  Walrus     
475.   Shrew        

412.  bpearin^t  e      a 

413.  ope 

374 

41-    Whalebone  Wh'ile     

376 

377 
.  378 
379 
.  380 
38i 
.  381 
382 
.  383 
384 
•  385 
386 
.  380 
387 

477.  Mole  
478.  Hand  of  Mole    ... 
479.  Heads  of  Rhinolophus  ferrum  equinum 
and  Megaderma  frons    
480    Pipistrelle 

417.  Wart-Hog,    Indian    Rhinoceros,   and 
River-Horse  
418.  Head  of  Indian  Elephant       

420.  Wild  Boar    
421.  Skull  of  Rhinoceros     
422.  American  Tapir  
423.  Wild  Ass  
424.  Zebra    
425.  Quagga    ...     

481.  Skeleton  of  Man  and  Orang  

482.  White-fronted  Lemur   

483.  Howling  Monkey      
484.  Orang-Outang,   Mandril,  and  Spider 
Monkey 

486.  Bornean  Orang      
487.  Gorilla  
488.  Chimpanzee  

427.  Water-cells  of  the  Camel    

THE  ANIMAL  CREATION: 

Q  |)0jniJar  $nf  rob  action  to  zoology. 


CHAPTER  I. 

science  of  Zoology  teaches  us  the  forms  and  habits  of 
the  countless  animals  with  which  we  are  everywhere  sur- 
rounded,* their  mutual  dependencies  upon  each  other,  and  their 
relative  importance  in  the  economy  of  Nature.  Among  the  in- 
numerable beings  which  crowd  this  world  not  one  is  idle  ;  all  are 
actively  employed  each  in  its  separate  sphere  of  usefulness,  and 
though  they  blindly  do  the  work  imposed  upon  them  by  their 
Great  Creator,  ignorant  of  other's  ways,  the  grand  result  is  per- 
fect harmony. 

When  we  consider  how  innumerable  are  the  species  of  animals 
distributed  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  earth,  and  throughout 
the  immeasurable  realms  of  water,  and  are  called  upon  to  recog- 
nize them  individually,  and  to  identify  all  the  members  of  such  a 
multifarious  host,  the  task  might  well  be  considered  as  hopeless  as 
that  of  the  unlettered  savage  who,  unable  to  count  beyond  twenty, 
sets  about  the  enumeration  of  the  stars,  and  tries  to  fix  their 
places  and  assign  their  names.  Yet  even  those  stars  have  been 
reduced  to  order,  the  very  skies  have  been  mapped  out,  and  the 
astronomer  points  with  as  much  satisfaction  to  the  buckle  of 
Orion's  belt  or  the  tip-of  the  nose  of  Bootes,  as  if  these  respect- 
able gentlemen  were  up  on  high  sitting  for  their  portraits. 

A  disbanded  army  presents  to  the  observer  nothing  but  a  wild 
scene  of  inextricable  confusion  ;  but  when  at  trumpet-call,  the 
soldiers  hasten  to  their  ranks,  and  the  appropriate  banner  waves 
above  each  company,  these  companies  fall  into  regiments,  and 
the  living  mass,  directed  by  one  chief,  moves  on  with  the  utmost 
order  and  regularity. 

Systematic  arrangement  is,  therefore,  the  very  foundation  of 

1 


CLASSIFICA  TION. 


the  science  of  Zoology  :  it  is  only  by  the  establishment  of  classes, 
and  orders,  and  genera,  and  species,  which  constitute,  so  to  speak, 
the  colours  of  the  different  regiments,  that  such  arrangement  is 
at  all  to  be  accomplished ;  and  to  define  the  limits  and  the  cha- 
racters of  these  genera  and  species,  the  efforts  of  the  scientific 
zoologist  are  principally  directed.  It  must  consequently  be  our 
first  endeavour  to  explain  what  these  words,  species  and  genera, 
mean. 

By  Species  is  understood  a  number  of  animals  so  closely  re- 
sembling each  other,  that  they  all  might  be  supposed  to  be  the 
offspring  of  the  same  parents,  and  in  turn  to  give  birth  to  progeny 
exactly  resembling  themselves.  The  domestic  mouse,  for  example, 
is  a  species,  the  exact  facsimile  both  of  its  ancestors  and  its  off- 
spring. Species,,  however,  may  be  slightly  modified  by  the  con- 
tinued operation  of  external  circumstances,  such  as  climate,  abun- 
dance or  deficiency  of  food,  or  other  similar  accidents  ;  there  may, 
for  example,  be  a  white  mouse,  or  a  piebald  mouse  :  fliese  are 
called  Varieties  of  the  species. 

A  Genus  is  a  group  embracing  a  number  of  species  which  have 
a  striking  general  resemblance  to  each  other  in  certain  important 
particulars,  whereby  they  are  distinguishable  from  all  other 
animals.  The  domestic  mouse  (Mns  mnscnlns),  for  instance,  is  at 
once  recognizable  from  the  squirrel,  the  beaver,  or  the  hare,  from 
the  circumstance  that  it  has  a  long  tail  tapering  to  a  point  and 
denuded  of  hair;  but  there  are  many  other  animals,  which,  though 
evidently  not  real  mice,  have  this  feature  in  common.  There  is 
the  rat,  Mns  rattus ;  the  brown  rat,  Mns  decnmanns ;  the  field- 
mouse,  Mns  sylvaticns  ;  and  the  harvest-mouse,  Mns  mcssorins, 
all  of  which  are  species  more  or  less  resembling  the  mouse,  but 
all  distinguishable  from  each  other  by  minor  characters ;  these, 
therefore,  constitute  a  genus. 

An  Order  is  a  far  more  extensive  group,  including  several 
genera,  allied  to  each  other  by  some  important  feature  in  their 
economy.  The  rats  and  the  mice,  for  example,  are  all  remark- 
able for  their  chisel-like  front  teeth  ;  but  there  are  other  animals 
that  have  their  teeth  of  the  same  coustruction,  although  they  have 
not  the  same  long  and  tapering  tail,  e.g.,  the  squirrel,  the  beaver, 
the  hare,  and  the  porcupine ;  these,  therefore,  form  the  order 
Rodentia,  or  animals  distinguished  by  their  chisel-like  teeth. 

A  Class  embraces  all  the  Orders  related  to  each  other  by  some 
grand  and  general  character  possessed  by  them  all  in  common. 
Thus,  the  Rodentia  suckle  their  young ;  but  so  do  dogs,  so  do 


CLASSIFICATION. 


monkeys,  hedgehogs,  cats,  whales,  elephants,  cows,  anteaters,  and 
kangaroos ;  a  circumstance  whereby  they  are  distinguished  from 
birds,  reptiles,  or  fishes.  All  animals  that  give  suck  are,  there- 
fore, associated  to  form  one  great  class — the  Mammals. 

Or  we  may  take  the  converse  of  all  this.  Thus,  in  the  animal 
kingdom  there  is  a  Class  of  creatures  recognizable  by  the  circum- 
stance that  they  suckle  their  young ;  among  these  is  an  Order, 
distinguished  by  having  chisel-like  teeth  in  the  front  of  their 
mouths  ;  belonging  to  this  Order  is  a  Genus,  remarkable  for  the 
possession  of  a  long  tapering  tail,  and  the  smallest  Species  be- 
longing to  this  genus  is  the  harvest-mouse,  Mns  messorius.  An 
arrangement  such  as  this  enables  us  to  find  out  the  name  of  any 
animal,  and  is  called  a  system,  which,  in  fact,  is  a  dictionary,  with 
this  difference,  that  here  the  properties  enable  us  to  find  out  the 
name,  whereas  in  ordinary  dictionaries  the  known  name  serves 
to  acquaint  us  with  the  properties.  Thus,  the  study  of  Zoology 
is  one  eminently  calculated  to  accustom  the  mind  to  habits  of 
order  and  precision,  to  a  close  and  accurate  comparison  of  objects 
presented  to  our  notice,  and  to  a  clear  and  neat  perception  of  their 
distinctive  characters  ;  it  gives  a  facility  of  expression  to  our  de- 
scriptions, and  in  this  way  its  importance,  as  a  branch  of  educa- 
tion, can  scarcely  be  exaggerated. 

Perhaps  nothing  has  contributed  so  much  to  the  advancement 
of  the  science  of  Natural  History  as  the  happy  expedient  first 
adopted  by  Linnaeus,  of  giving  to  every  object  in  Nature  a  double 
name,  whereby  its  identity  is  at  once  satisfactorily  indicated. 
Thus,  in  the  examples  given  above,  we  say  Mus  musculus,  JMiis 
rattns,  filus  messorius.  The  first  of  the  two  names  is  that  of  the 
genus,  and,  therefore,  common  to  all  the  species  of  that  genus ; 
the  second  is  the  specific  name — that  is,  points  out  the  species 
to  which  we  refer,  just  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  names  of 
persons.  The  family  name  Milton  or  Shakspeare  may  belong  to 
anybody,  but  John  Milton  and  William  Shakspeare  are  indi- 
viduals at  once  recognizable.  The  cnly  difference  is  that  in  this 
case  the  specific  name  is  placed  first,  instead  of  after  that  of  the 
genus.  To  understand  the  importance  of  this  great  step  in 
zoological  science,  it  is  only  necessary  to  read  the  descriptions 
of  old  authors,  who,  after  devoting  half  a  page  to  the  identifica- 
tion of  an  animal,  leave  you  in  doubt  whether  they  are  speaking 
of  a  cat,  or  a  rat,  or  a  hippopotamus. 

With  regard  to  the  classification  of  the  immense  series  of  living 
beings  composing  the  animal  creation,  various  systems  have  been 

1 — 2 


CLASSIFICA  TION. 


at  different  times  sketched  out  by  the  master  minds  of  science, 
all  of  which  have  more  or  less  fallen  short  of  their  great  object. 
Of  these,  the  most  useful  and  most  generally  adopted  is  that  of 
Cuvier,  and  as  this  will  be  more  or  less  our  guide  throughout  the 
following  pages,  a  knowledge  of  its  leading  features  becomes  in- 
dispensable. 

According  to  the  system  of  Cuvier,  all  living  animals  are  divided 

intor 

ist.  Those  that  have  back-bones  (vertebras)  ; 

2nd.  Those  that  have  not  back-bones. 

Those  animals  that  have  back-bones  are  called 

Vertebrate. 

Those  that  are  without  back-bones  are  called 

Invertebrate. 

The  Vertebrate  division  includes 

Fishes,  Reptiles,  Birds,  and  Mammals. 

The  Invertebrate  division  is  much  more  numerous,  and  com- 
prehends animals  of  very  various  construction.  These  are 

ist.  Mollusks,  or  soft-bodied  animals,  such  as  cuttle-fishes, 
snails,  oysters,  &c.  ; 

2nd.  Articulated  Animals,  or  a'nimals  enclosed  in  a  jointed 
skin,  such  as  insects,  spiders,  and  lobsters  ; 

3rd.  Radiated  Animals,  under  which  head  are  included  all 
the  lowest  and  least  perfect  members  of  the  animal  kingdom — 
many  of  them  having  few  characteristics  in  common. 

The  completeness  of  the  above  classification,  so  far  as  it  relates 
to  the  more  perfect  animals,  is  generally  admitted,  and  we  shall, 
therefore,  take  it  as  our  guide  ;  but  among  the  lower  tribes  of 
creation  such  guidance  fails  us,  and  through  this  labyrinth  we 
shall  have  to  make  our  way  by  the  aid  of  more  recent  investiga- 
tions. 

In  the  preceding  paragraph,  as  the  reader  may  have  remarked, 
we  have  spoken  of  "  the  more  perfect  animals  "  as  contradistin- 
guished from  those  of  "the  lower  tribes  ;  "  and,  as  we  shall  again 
and  again  be  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  similar  expressions,  the 
terms  require  some  explanation.  Every  animal  is  perfect  in  its 
kind,  and  to  add  to,  or  to  take  from,  its  attributes  would  deterio- 
rate its  usefulness  in  creation.  By  the  perfect  or  imperfect  struc- 
ture of  an  animal,  we  simply  mean  Vhe  degree  in  which  it  approxi- 
mates to  Man — the  type  and  pattern  of  zoological  perfection  : 
just  as  in  estimating  the  value  of  money,  we  take  the  highest 
coin  in  the  realm  as  a  standard  of  comparison.  Man,  the  paragon 


CLASSIFICATION. 


of  animals,  is  the  union  of  what  is  most  perfect  and  beautiful  in 
them  all.  Hence,  animals  which  have  a  resemblance  to  Man  are 
not  without  reason  styled  perfect  in  a  degree  proportioned  to  that 
resemblance. 

With  these  preliminary  observations,  we  enter  on  our  pleasur- 
able task,  and  proceed  to  trace  the  varied  forms  of  animal  exist- 
ence from  the  first  dawn  of  life  to  Man  himself,  who,  standing 
supreme  in  his  mental  capacities,  rises  by  his  immortal  destiny 
incomparably  beyond  them  all. 

Turning  our  attention  to  the  great  scene  before  us,  "  Beast,  bird, 
fish,  insect,  which  no  eye  can  see,  no  glass  can  reach,"  so  strange 
and  diversified  are  their  shapes  and  attributes,  that  the  student 
naturally  inquires,  What  is  an  animal  ? — a  question  which  he  will 
soon  find  to  be  much  more  easily  propounded  than  satisfactorily 
solved. 


At  the  first  glance  ot  the  superficial  observer,  the  distinctions 
between  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms  seem  plain  and 
obvious.  We  all  know  a  cow  from  a  cabbage,  a  horse  from  the 
grass  upon  which  it  feeds  ;  and  yet,  as  we  come  more  closely  to 
scrutinize  forms  of  life  less  violently  contrasted,  doubts  and  hesi- 
tations soon  begin  to  teach  us  that  the  discrimination  is  not  always 
so  easy,  and  that  at  length  the  differences  between  the  animal 
and  the  vegetable  creations  become  almost  imperceptible.  Light 
and  darkness  seem  distinct  enough,  and  no  one  possessed  of  eye- 


CLASSIFICA  TWN. 


sight  could  be  in  danger  of  mistaking  noon  for  night ;  but  he  who 
gazes  on  the  morning's  dawn,  and  tries  to  mark  the  line  that 
separates  the  parting  darkness  from  the  coming  day,  will  find  the 
task  by  no  means  an  easy  one,  so  gently  do  the  lights  and  shades 
tincture  and  mingle  with  each  other. 

The  axiom  of  Linnaeus  is  well-known :  "Stones  grow,  vegetables 
grow  and  live,  animals  grow,  live,  and  feel."  The  capability  of 
feeling,  therefore,  was  regarded  by  the  great  Swedish  naturalist 
as  the  distinctive  character  of  an  animal ;  but  how  can  we  define 
where  feeling  has  been  first  bestowed  ?  The  sensitive  plant  which 
coyly  shrinks  upon  the  slightest  touch,  does  it  not  feel  ?  The 
flower  that  shuts  its  bells  as  evening  comes,  and  seems  to  go  to 
sleep,  is  it  insensitive  ?  We  cannot  tell. 

To  move  from  place  to  place,  to  have  the  power  of  locomotion, 
has  been  said  to  be  an  attribute  of  animals,  whereby  they  are 
distinguishable.  Yet,  although  we  see  the  Volvox*  (Fig.  i)  roll- 
ing through  the  drop  that  forms  its  space  with  slow  majestic 
movement,  wielding  upon  its  surface  countless  living  filaments, 
we  are  forced  to  believe  the  chemist  who  informs  us  that  it  is  a 
vegetable,  f 

If  we  take  a  drop  of  water  from  any  stagnant  pool,  and  place 
it  under  a  microscope,  we  shall  soon  perceive  that  it  contains  a 
great  variety  of  living  organisms,  very  diverse  in  their  shape,  and 
all  equally  remote  in  their  structure  and  appearance  from  any 
with  which  we  are  elsewhere  familiar.  Let  the  reader  cast  his 
eye  for  a  moment  upon  the  annexed  engraving  (Fig.  2),  which 
represents  a  piece  of  duckweed,  gathered  from  a  neighbouring 
pond,  surrounded  by  the  microscopic  creatures  that  live  in  its 
vicinity.  Some  fixed  upon  the  stem  (Fig.  2,  9)  like  trumpets  in 
their  shape,  spread  out  their  gaping  mouths,  around  which  whirl 
the  swarming  atoms  that  they  swallow  ;  others,  like  wine-glasses 
in  miniature,  stretch  out  the  little  bells  that  constitute  their  bodies 
to  the  length  of  their  transparent  stems  in  search  of  food,  or,  if 
alarmed,  folding  their  stalks  in  spiral  revolutions,  shrink  timidly 
from  danger  (Fig.  2,  i). 

*  Volvo,  I  roll. 

•f*  The  Volvox  globator,  of  which  a  figure  is  given  in  the  text,  is  acknowledged  to 
be  a  vegetable  production.  In  shape  it  seems  a  microscopic  globe,  rolling  slowly  on 
its  axis.  More  accurately  examined,  we  perceive  the  body  to  be  formed  of  a  transparent 
spherical  membrane,  studded  with  small  green  dots,  and  having  all  its  surface  covered 
over  with  vibrating  filaments  of  infinite  minuteness,  which  produce  currents  in  the  sur- 
rounding water,  and  thus  cause  the  revolution  of  the  little  sphere,  as  well  as  its  pro- 
gression. 


CLASS! PICA  TION. 


The  Volvox  (Fig.  2,  2)  silently  revolves,  a  little  world  within 
itself.  Others  (Fig.  2,  6),  of  different  shape,  resemble  films  of  ever- 
changing  cloud.  Others,  again,  transparent  globes  of  jelly  (Fig. 
2,  n),  shoot  forth  star-like  rays  in  all  directions.  Some  have  the 
form  of  glass-like  shuttles,  coloured  with  bright  green  contents, 
creeping  more  slowly  than  the  hour-hand  of  a  watch  along  the 
bottom.  Some  (Fig.  2,  8)  have  the  shape  of  rolling  mulberries, 
that  gently  make  their  way  through  the  surrounding  water. 


FIG.  2. — MICROSCOPIC  OCCUPANTS  OF  A  LEAF  OF  DUCKWEED. 


1.  Vorticella  convallana. 

2.  Volvox  giobator. 

3.  Vaginicola  crystalline,. 

4.  Amphileptus  fasciola. 

5.  Nai/icula  hippocampus. 


Highly  Magnified. 

6.  Amoeba,  dijfluens. 

7.  Trachelocerca  olor. 

8.  Polytoma  nvella. 

g.   Stentor  polymorphus. 
10.  Bursaria  truncatella. 


11.  Pattdor 

12.  Stylonychia  ntytilus. 

13.  Paratnecimn  aureha. 

14.  Euplotes  truncatus. 

15.  Enplotes  striatus. 


Others  (Fig.  2,  f),  like  swans  in  form,  glide  up  and  down  with 
graceful  elegance.  The  Vaginicola*  (Fig.  2,  3)  lives  in  a  crystal 
vase,  from  which  it  sketches  itself  forth  in  search  of  nourishment. 
The  Paramecium^  (Fig.  2,  13),  like  a  meteor,  shoots  along,  prowl- 
ing in  all  directions  ;  some  (Fig.  2,  14,  15),  clad  in  shells,  and 
armed  with  leg-like  hooklets,  creep  much  after  the  manner  of 
insects ;  while  others  skip  from  point  to  point  like  living  scintil- 
lations. Such  are  the  creatures  that  we  find  in  swarms  in  every 
stagnant  ditch,  as  any  one  possessed  of  a  very  ordinary  micro- 
scope may  soon  convince  himself.  These  wonderful  organisms 
have  little  resemblance  to  each  other.  It  is  difficult,  indeed,  with 


*  Vagina,  a  sheath  ;  colo,  7  inhabit. 


,  paramekes,  oblong. 


8  CLASSIFICATION. 

the  exception  of  their  miraculous  minuteness,  to  fix  upon  any 
character  that  they  possess  in  common.  We  are  not  surprised, 
therefore,  that  by  the  earlier  observers  with  the  microscope,  they 
were  all  grouped  together  under  the  very  extensive  designation 
of  Animalcules,  a  term  simply  significative  of  their  small  size  ; 
or  of  Infusorial  Animalcules,  in  allusion  to  the  circumstance 
that  they  are  generally  met  with  in  infusions  of  animal  or  of 
vegetable  substances,  and  are  easily  attainable  by  exposing  such 
infusions  to  the  atmosphere. 

Modern  improvements  in  the  microscope,  and  a  close  attention 
to  the  habits  and  organization  of  the  creatures  under  considera- 
tion, have,  however,  revealed  to  us  the  startling  fact  that  in  the 
drop  of  water  under  contemplation  we  have  examples  of  no  fewer 
than  three  distinct  classes  of  organisms  :  one  belonging  to  the 
vegetable,  and  two  to  the  animal  series  of  creation.  By  using  a 
very  simple  test  —  namely,  the  addition  of  a  little  iodine  to  the 
drop  in  which  they  swim — it  is  found  that  four  specimens  in  the 
little  group  before  us,  namely,  the  Volvox  (Fig.  2,  2),  the  Polytoina 
(Fig.  2,  s),  the  Navicula  (Fig.  2,  5),  and  the  Pandorina  (Fig.  2, 11), 
at  once  turn  blue,  indicative  that  they  contain  starch,  a  substance 
thought  to  be  peculiar  to  the  vegetable  creation,  and  thus  confess 
that  they  are  vegetable  productions. 

The  slimy  substance  of  the  Amoeba  difflucns  (Fig.  2,  6),  that  we 
have  stated  to  be  continually  changing  its  shape,  like  the  outline 
of  a  cloud,  refuses  to  alter  its  colour  under  such  a  test;  and.  more- 
over, as  it  flows  or  glides  from  place  to  place,  is  seen  to  devour 
and  to  digest  the  materials  with  which  it  is  surrounded,  thus 
claiming  admission  into  the  animal  series,  and  soon  making  good 
that  claim  by  exhibiting  attributes  and  capabilities  decidedly 
of  an  animal  character.  The  remaining  forms  (Fig.  2,  ],  3,  4, 
7,  9,  10,  12,  13,  M,  is),  more  active  and  energetic  in  their  move- 
ments, and  evidently  of  higher  capabilities,  are  all  distinguished 
by  having  their  bodies  either  partially  or  entirely  covered  with  a 
wondrous  machinery  of  vibrating  hair-like  appendages,  which, 
from  their  resemblance  to  our  eyelashes,  have  been  named  cilia* 
By  the  assistance  of  these  admirable  organs,  the  little  creatures 
possessing  them  are  rowed  rapidly  about  from  place  to  place,  or 
causing  whirlpools  in  the  surrounding  water,  drag  towards  their 
mouths  the  tiny  victims  upon  which  they  feed.  The  vegetable 
forms  above-mentioned  are  known  to  botanists  under  the  names 

*  Cilium,  an  eyelash. 


CLASSIFICA  TION. 


of  Diatoms*  Dcsmidice^  Conferva,  &c.  The  slime-like  animals 
are  called  by  zoologists  Rhizopods,  while  the  ciliated  forms  are 
distinguished  by  the  appellation  of  infusoria. 

These,  then,  are  the  usual  occupants  of  a  drop  of  water,  the 
contemplation  of  which  cannot  but  excite  the  curiosity  of  the 
spectator,  and  call  forth  his  warmest  admiration.  Curiosity  will, 
however,  perhaps  assume  a  deeper  interest  when  he  still  more 
closely  examines  their  history. 


FIG.  3.—  VEGETABLE  FORMS  OF  MICROSCOPIC  ORGANISMS. 

There  are  in  Sweden  certain  extensive  tracts  of  country  entirely 
composed  of  an  exceedingly  fine  earth,  which,  from  its  whiteness 
and  from  an  idea  extensively  prevalent  that  it  possesses  nutritious 
properties,  has  long  been  distinguished  by  the  name  of  Bcrgmelil, 
or  "  mountain  meal."  A  little  of  this  earth,  for  long  ages  trodden 
underfoot,  submitted  to  the  modern  microscope,  has  revealed  it- 
self to  be  entirely  resolvable  into  minute  shells  of  exquisite  beauty 


*  5i'aTo/xoj,  diatomos,  divided,     f  der/jAs,  desmos,  a  band. 


io  RIUZOPODA. 


and  delicacy  of  sculpture.  These  shells,  being  composed  almost 
entirely  of  pure  flint  (silex),  arc  almost  indestructible,  and  to  a 
practised  eye  are  at  once  seen  to  have  belonged  to  vegetable 
organisms  resembling  those  represented  in  our  engraving 
2,  §),  which  must  have  lived  for  centuries  in  some  quiet  lake,  and, 
as  they  perished,  sinking  to  the  bottom  of  the  water  which  covered 
the  vast  area  where  they  are  found,  left  their  shells  records  of 
their  history. 


CHAPTER    II 
FIRST  DIVISION  OF  INVERTEBRATE  ANIMALS. 

RADIATED  ANIMALS. 
ROOT-FOOTED  ANIMALCULES.    RHIZOPODA,* 

TO  return  to  our  magnified  drop  of  water.  We  have  already 
described  the  Amoeba  diffluens^  H  i;:-.  2,  r>),  as  resemb 
film  of  ever-changing  cloud,  so  soft  in  its  consistence  that  it  is  but 
a  little  removed  from  fluidity.  It  Is  not  firm  enough  even  to  be 
called  jelly :  it  may  almost  be  compared  to  a  drop  of  ^urn-water, 
or  mucus,  and  yet  it  is  endowed  with  very  extraordinary  capa- 
bilities. It  evidently  has  a  voluntary  power  of  moving  from  place 
to  place,  and  its  mode  of  doing  so  is  not  inaptly  /  the 

epithet  "diffruens"  Jlvwing-aiuay,  by  which  it  is  distin^u \^\\>A.  On 
first  perceiving  one  of  these  creatures  under  the  fieM  of  the  n 
scope,  it  will  be  found  perhaps  contracted  japelcss  mass, 

resembling  a  small  patch  of  mucilage,  and  offering  little  to  attract 
attention ;  while  we  watch  it,  however,  it  b'  move,  sp. 

out  intoashape  something  like  that  represented  in  our  f. 
we  are  almost  tempted  to  make  a  drawing  of  so 
Meanwhile,  it  flows  into  another  out  water 

spilled  upon  a  greasy  board,  and  fO  ,lace, 

and  form  to  form.    The  microscopic  film  is  hungry  too, 
but  having  neitli-  ii  nor  stomach,  it  is  not  at  fir.r  easy  to 

conjecture  how  such  a  feat  can  be  accon  Its  body  is 

rally  seen  to  contain  the  shells  of  Nu-.  fada  (Fig,  4),  and  oth'-r 

'.irnilar  or^ani  .rrr, ;   it  <\<><:.  not  ICCffl  to  IWallow  them,  but  over- 
whelms them  with  its  semi-fluid  substance,  and  as  it  passe 

*  fa'.  wfa  Tottf,  pott*,  podoft,  ajoot.      f  6./< 


them,  dissolves  whatever  is  digestible,  and  the::  Tth  their 

empty*  shells. 


The  sea-side  visitor  who  \vill  be  at  the  trouble  of  placing  a  little 
sea-weed,  Iresli  gathered   from  the  rocks,  in  a  ;  tilled 

\\ith  its  native  element,  and  allowing  it  to  remain  fora  lew  hours 
undisturbed,  will  occasionally  find,  clin^in^  to  the  sides  of  the 
i^lass,  lilmy  patches.  >o  small  as  to  be  inconspu 
the  assistance  of  a  lens,  which  change  their  form  and  i;lide  aloni; 
with  slow  hut  equable  movement,  \\~hen  magnified,  their  central 
body  will  be  seen  to  throw  out  threads  resembling  filaments  of 
melted  i;lass,  which  spread  \\  ,  in  all  directions;  and  as 

these  creatures  seem  to  use  their  root-like  filament-  .  they 

are  named  Rhizopods— that  is,  root-fo^cd  animals.      Tin  , 
in  truth,  marine  forms  of  the  .-J;/;«r/\7  we  have  just  been  describing. 
Ironi  which,  houcvcr,   they  differ  in  beini;'  able  to  construe: 
themselves  shelly  coverings,  pcrfo:.  innumerable  littl, 

:.:fM,  through  which  their  root -like  filaments  (psattb- 
f<>ih'ti)*  are  }>rotnuUxl.  l:rom  this  circumstance,  the  shells  and 
the  creatures  inhabiting  them  have  been  named  Foraininifera.t 

*  K;ll-> 

f  Foramen,  ,v. 


12 


FORAMINIFERA. 


Minute  as  these  shells  are,  invisible  for  the  most  part  to  ordinary 
vision,  the  microscope  reveals  many  of  them  to  be  structures  of 
exquisite  beauty,  emulating  in  their  shape  the  model  forms  of 
ancient  vases,  and  presenting  an  elaborate  sculpture  surpassing 
that  of  Chinese  carvings  in  their  decoration. 

It  is  not,  however,  from  their  beauty,  but  from  the  numbers  in 
which  they  exist,  that  these  and  similar  organisms  derive  their 


FIG.  5.— RHIZOPODS. 

chief  importance.  Few  visitors  at  the  sea-side  can  have  failed  to 
observe  that  often  in  the  summer-time  the  waves  are  luminous, 
and  shine  with  phosphorescent  splendour.  The  ripples  as  they 
totter  towards  the  beach  sparkle  with  scintillations,  and  the  crested 
waves  blaze  with  a  pale  but  brilliant  light.  The  fisherman,  who 
from  his  boat  surveys  the  lambent  flames  that  play  around  him, 
seems  to  float  in  fire.  The  mariner  can  trace  his  path  by  the 
long  wake  of  light  that  streams  behind  like  the  train  of  some  vast 
sky-rocket,  or  looking  from  the  prow,  he  sees  his  vessel,  as  she 
breasts  the  waves,  dash  from  her  bows  broad  sheets  of  liquid 


FORAMINIFERA.  -13 

splendour.  As  the  morning  dawns  the  fairy  vision  vanishes,  nor 
can  the  keenest  eye  perceive  in  the  translucent  element  the  tiny 
lamps  that  caused  the  grand  illumination. 

Night  comes  again,  again  the  sea,  lit  up,  repeats  the  glorious 
lesson.  Not  a  breeze  sweeps  over  its  tranquil  surface  but  evokes 
a  flash  of  splendour  that  extends  for  miles,  and  emulates  the 
lightnings  of  the  skies ;  and  so  from  day  to  day  the  gallant  ship 
sails  on  ; — from  week  to  week,  from  month  to  month,  the  mighty 
ocean,  through  its  wide  extent,  renews  each  night  the  impressive 
spectacle. 


FlG.   6. — NOCTILUCA  MILIARIS. 

If  we  inquire  into  the  cause  of  a  phenomenon  thus  widely  ex- 
tended, it  will  be  found  in  every  part  of  the  world  to  depend  upon 
the  presence  of  infinite  myriads  of  living  atoms  resembling  those 
we  are  discussing.  On  taking  a  glass  of  the  sea-water  thus  made 
luminous,  it  will  be  found  that  every  sparkle  is  an  animal  (Nocti- 
luca  miKaris)  composed  of  living  substance  such  as  forms  the 
Rhizopods  described  above  (Fig.  6). 

We  have  as  yet  spoken  only  of  the  simplest  of  these  animals, 
but  by  far  the  greater  portion  of  the  Foraminifera  are  composite 
fabrics.  The  Rotalia*  (Fig.  5,  c),  for  example,  might  almost  be 
taken  for  the  shell  of  a  microscopic  nautilus,  nay,  has  been  so 
mistaken  even  by  the  most  eminent  zoologists.  These  exquisite 

*  Rota,  a  ic/itst. 


structures  consist  of  a  series  of  compartments,  in  the  interior  of 
which  the  semi-fluid  substance  of  the  animal  is  lodged.  The  walls 
of  each  of  these  compartments  are  perforated  with  innumerable 
holes,  through  which  the  slender  glass-like  filaments  protrude  in 
all  directions  to  a  considerable  distance,  so  that  the  shell  in  which 
the  main  body  of  the  creature  is  encased,  has  somewhat  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  spider  sitting  in  the  centre  of  its  web.  (Fig.  5,  &.) 

The  semi-fluid  filaments  (psfudo-podia}  also  constitute  the  pre- 
hensile organs  of  these  simple  beings.  Any  small  objects  sen 
able  for  nutriment  with  which  they  come  in  contact  are  laid  hold 
of  apparently  by  the  viscidity  of  their  surface,  and  except  they 
are  animalcules  of  considerable  size  and  power,  they  are  unable 
to  escape.  When  a  filament  has  so  seized  its  prey,  adjoining 
fibres  aggregate  about  it  and  coalesce,  a  current  of  the  viscous 
substance,  so  to  speak,  sets  in  towards  the  spot,  and  very  soon 
envelopes  the  object  in  a  thin  film.  The  prey  being  thus  secured. 
the  glairy  cords  shorten  themselves  and  draw  it  towards  the  chief 
mass  or  body  of  the  animal  or  else  the  object  seized  continues  in 
the  same  place,  and  the  whole  organic  substance  moves  towards  it, 
the  result  being  in  either  case  that  it  is  engulfed  and  dissolved. 

The  size  of  the  Rhizopods  is  exceedingly  minute.  Ehrenberg 
describes  Anurbtr  the  dimensions  of  which  range  from  1^00  th  to 
T^T  th  of  an  inch.  The  largest  fresh-water  forms  only  attain  a 
diameter  of  ^*nd  part  of  an  inch,  whilst  the  largest  marine  species, 
which  are  just  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  do  not  measure  more  than 
from  -s\;th  to  |th  of  an  inch. 

vithstanding  their  minuteness,  however,  the  reader  will  now 
begin  to  perceive  that  these  humble  creatures,  diffused  in  count- 
less multitudes  through  every  sea,  and  cased  in  shells  of  such  ex- 
quisite workmanship,  are  by  no  means  unimportant  agents  in  the 
economy  of  Nature.  Their  numbers  make  up  for  the  minuter.. 
of  their  dimensions,  and  assiduously  employed  as  they  have  been 
from  age  to  age,  we  are  not  surprised  to  find  that  they,  like  the 
vegetable  forms  described  in  the  last  chapter,  have  been  important 
agents  in  the  construction  even  of  extensive  geological  strata. 

The  extraordraaiT  abundance  of  focammiferoos  shells  in  the  sand  of  some 
;  has  been  long  observed:  F1ancas,in  1735,  counted,  with  the  aid  of 


::  ::.;  Air.-.;  S-.    1    J : :  -  .  5-;.;  -J-i:  :.:_;;,;,; 
;  and  Schnhz 


-.  -..?:  '--  :-'-.  :-_-:-:  ::  5-ir.i  r:~  :~-~:  AT.  :._".:=  s  :  :.r.i  5:r/_.::e  ::u-:ei  :":•:  shell? 
:::.-:..-  ::  =:.-:.  ::'..•.::-.•:.  :::~   :"-;  —  :".=  ::"  fien  :z -J:: 


FORAMINIFERA.  15 


both  on  the  surface  of  the  sea  and  also  on  the  bottom,  even  at  a  depth  of 
J2,ooo  feet  From  these  great  depths  they  are  procured  by  soundings ;  the 
sounding-lead,  after  being  coated  with  grease,  brings  up  attached  to  it  the  small 
particles  with  which  it  comes  in  contact  Numerous  such  soundings  were 
taken  by  Sir  James  Ross  in  his  Antarctic  expedition,  and  have  been  practised 
by  others  in  different  regions.  Dr.  Barclay  records  the  results  of  a  series  of 
deep-sea  soundings  made  in  the  Atlantic,  over  a  considerable  geographical 
area,  from  latitude  42"  4'  to  latitude  54°  I/,  at  depths  varying  from  1/380  to 
2,000  fathoms.  "  None  of  the  soundings  contain  a  particle  of  gravel,  sand,  or 
other  unorganized  matter.  They  all  agree  hi  being  made  up  entirely  of  the 
shells  of  Foraminifera."'  There  is,  therefore,  little  doubt  that  the  bottom  of  the 
ocean  is  in  many  localities  covered,  perhaps  to  considerable  depths,  by  a  sedi- 
mentary deposit,  consisting  principally  of  shells  of  this  description,  and  which, 
were  they  raised  to  the  surface,  would  constitute  thick  beds  of  incalculable 
exit 

In  a  fossil  condition,  the  shells  of  the  Foraminifera  enter  largely  into  the 
composition  of  the  crust  of  the  earth  in  every  part  of  the  world.  They  form 
by  far  the  most  important  constituent  of  chalk  wherever  that  substance  is  met 
with.  Dr.  Barclay  speaks  of  them  as  importantly  concerned  in  the  formation 
of  the  tertiary  rocks  of  South  Carolina,  and  adds,  u  they  are  still  at  work  in 
countless  thousands  on  that  coast,  filling  up  harbours,  forming  shoals,  and 
depositing  their  shells  to  record  the  present  state  of  the  sea-shore  as  their  pre- 
decessors, now  entombed  beneath  Charlestown,  have  done  with  regard  to 
ancient  oceans." 

In  many  parts  of  the  world  the  accumulation  of  these  shells  has  given  origin 
to  widely-extended  strata,  many  hundreds  of  feet  in  thickness.  Mountains  of 
Nummulitic  limestone,  entirely  composed  of  them,  extend  through  the  Alps 
and  Northern  Italy,  and  are  met  with  in  Greece,  Syria,  and  Northern  India. 
The  Mokkadam  range,  from  which  the  stone  used' in  building  the  Pyramids 
was  obtained,  are  simply  masses  of  foraminiferous  shells.  According  to  M. 
Deshayes,  there  is  found  in  most  of  the  stone  from  which  Paris  is  built,  as 
large  a  proportion  of  the  shells  of  Foraminifera  as  of  particles  of  sand,  so  that 
it  may  be  said,  almost  without  exaggeration,  that  even  Paris  owes  the  materials 
of  which  it  is  constructed  to  the  persistent  agency  of  these  microscopic  or- 
ganisms. 

Thus  we  perceive  a  film  of  living  slime — for  such  essentially  these  creatures 
seem  to  be,  moulded  into  a  thousand  beauteous  forms,  labouring  incessantly 
—has  silently  produced  results  on  which  we  can  but  gaze  with  awe. 


CHAPTER    III. 
SPONGES.* 


*  I  "HERE  seems  to  be  little  relationship  between  the  Forami- 
JL       nifera  we  have  just   been  speaking  of  and  the  race  of 

*  Spongia,  a  sponge. 


1 6  SPONGES. 


Sponges — in  fact,  few  things  could  be  pointed  out  more  unlike 
each  other.  Infinitely  diversified  in  their  shape,  the  sponges,  as 
we  all  know,  are  distributed  along  the  shores  of  every  climate : 
some  overspread  the  surface  of  the  rocks  like  living  carpets, 
others  expand  in  fan-like  growths  of  softest  texture ;  some  are 
cylindrical  in  shape,  while  others  emulate  the  forms  of  branching 
shrubs ;  others,  again,  are  moulded  into  cups  and  giant  goblets, 
many  festoon  the  walls  of  rocky  caverns,  or  depend,  like  living 


FIG.  7.  -Si  ONGES. 

stalactites,  from  wave-worn  roofs.  Examined  with  a  microscope, 
however,  a  living  sponge  is  found  to  differ  but  little  from  the 
organisms  we  have  just  been  contemplating.  No  matter  what 
its  form,  the  living  portion  of  a  sponge  consists  of  a  soft  slime 
that  coats  each  fibre  of  its  structure,  and  this  soft  slime,  when 
highly  magnified,  resolves  itself  entirely  into  particles  so  like  the 
Amoeba  in  their  characters  and  attributes,  that  they  are  evidently 
of  the  same  nature,  the  main  distinction  being  that,  whereas  in 
the  case  of  the  Foraminifera,  they  secrete  a  calcareous  shell,  the 
sponges  construct  a  common  framework,  over  which  the  living 
film  is  spread.  This  framework  varies  in  its  composition  in  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  sponge.  Sometimes  it  is  made  up  of  tubes  of  horn, 


SPONGES. 


FIG.  8.— FRAMEWORK  OK 
SPONGE. 


forming-  a  network  interlaced  in  all  direc- 
tions ;  such  is  the  common  sponge  of  com- 
merce, which  owes  its  resiliency  and  its 
capability  of  absorbing  and  retaining  fluids, 
qualities  which  render  it  so  useful  in  domes- 
tic economy,  to  the  construction  of  its  horny 
skeleton.  Instead  of  tubes  of  horn,  the 
sponges  usually  found  upon  our  coasts  de- 
posit in  their  substance  crystals  of  pure  flint, 

which  vary  very  much  in  form  in  different  kinds,  while  a  third 
group   strengthen    their   framework  with  calcareous    spicula  of 

variable  shape.  Three  different 
kinds  of  sponge  may,  therefore, 
grow  close  to  each  other,  bathed 
alike  with  the  same  sea-water,  yet 
they  elaborate  therefrom  products 
so  different  as  horn,  and  flint,  and 
lime,  wherewith  to  build  a  fabric 
that  supports  the  whole  commu- 
nity. On  viewing  a  living  sponge 
in  sea- water  with  care  and  atten- 
tion, it  is  found  to  exhibit  a  con- 
stant and  energetic  action,  which 
Dr.  Grant's  account  of  the  disco- 
very of  this  motion  in  a  native  species  is  very  interesting. 

"  I  put  a  small  branch  of  a  Spongia  coalita  with  some  sea-water 
into  a  watch-glass,  under  the  microscope,  and  on  reflecting  the 
light  of  a  candle  through  the  fluid,  I  soon  perceived  that  there 


FIG.  9. — FLINT  CRYSTALS  OF  SPONGE. 


sufficiently  shows  its  vitality. 


FIG.  io.— SPONGE  IN  ACTION. 


was  some  intestine  motion  in  the  opaque  particles  floating  through 
the  water.     On  moving  the  watch-glass  so  as  to  bring  one  of  the 


i8 


SPONGES. 


apertures  on  the  side  of  the  sponge  fully  into  view,  I  beheld,  for 
the  first  time,  the  splendid  spectacle  of  the  living  fountain  vomit- 
ing forth  from  a  circular  cavity  an  impetuous  torrent  of  liquid 
matter,  and  hurling  along,  in  rapid  succession,  opaque  masses, 
which  it  strewed  everywhere  around.  The  beauty  and  novelty 
of  such  a  scene  in  the  animal  kingdom  long  arrested  my  atten- 
tion ;  but  after  twenty-five  minutes  of  constant  observation,  I 
was  obliged  to  withdraw  my  eye  from  fatigue,  without  having 
seen  the  torrent  for  one  instant  change  its  direction,  or  diminish 
in  the  slightest  degree  the  rapidity  of  its  course.  I  continued  to 
watch  the  same  orifice  at  short  intervals  for  five  hours,  sometimes 
observing  it  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour  at  a  time ;  but  still  the 
stream  rolled  on  with  a  constant  and  equal  velocity." 

The  sponges  perpetuate 
their  race  by  a  very  curious 
mode  of  increase.  At  stated 
periods  there  project  from  the 
interior  of  the  larger  canals, 
that  traverse  their  substance 
in  all  directions,  minute  oval 
masses  of  jelly,  which  grow, 
till  at  length  they  are  detached 
and  driven  out  by  the  issuing 
currents  into  the  surrounding 
water.  One  would  naturally 
expect  that  such  apparently 
helpless  atoms  would  fall  at 
once  to  the  bottom ;  but  in 
such  a  case  how  could  the 
species  be  dispersed  ?  Here 
we  behold  with  wonder  a  beau- 
tiful instance  of  providential 
care.  A  power  of  locomotion 
is  conferred  upon  the  offspring, 
which  is  not  possessed  by  the 
parent  sponge  ;  for  whereas 
the  latter  is  firmly  rooted  to 
the  bottom,  incapable  of 
changing  its  place,  the  little 
germ  is  able  to  swim  rapidly  through  the  sea.  This  is  effected 


FIG.  ii.— HALICHONDRIA  OCULATA.* 


hals,  the  sea  ;  x 


chondros,  cartilage. 


INFUSORIA.  19 


by  cilia,  or  minute  hairs,  with  which  one  end  of  the  pear-shaped 
gemmule  is  beset :  these  constantly  keep  up  a  rapid  vibration, 
and  thus  row  the  embryo  sponge  from  place  to  place,  until  it 
reaches  a  distant  and  suitable  spot,  where  it  quietly  settles  down, 
and  soon  takes  the  form  peculiar  to  its  species. 

Were  we  to  inform  our  young  readers  that  flints  have  been 
sponges,  and  that  every  flint  wherewith,  in  many  parts  of  the 
country,  the  roads  are  paved,  and  which,  before  the  invention  of 
lucifer  matches,  constituted  almost  the  only  means  of  obtaining 
fire,  had  grown  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  rooted  upon  rocks,  and 
sucking  in  the  surrounding  water  through  innumerable  pores  on 
their  surface,  which  conveyed  through  every  part  of  their  soft 
texture  materials  for  their  subsistence — we  could  scarcely  expect 
the  assertion  to  be  credited,  at  least  without  considerable  hesita- 
tion ;  and  yet  no  fact  in  natural  history  is  more  easily  demon- 
strated. Not  only  do  the  fragments  of  flints  examined  under 
the  microscope  reveal  the  fossilized  texture  of  the  sponge,  but 
not  unfrequently  the  shells  of  the  animalcules  upon  which  they 
lived  are  found  in  their  substance,  and  even  portions  of  the  sponge 
itself,  as  yet  unpetrified,  are  often  contained  in  their  interior. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
CILIATED  ANIMALCULES.    INFUSORIA.* 

T")  ETURNING  once  more  to  our  examination  of  the  drop  of 
XV  water  which  has  already  furnished  us  with  lessons  of  such 
interest,  we  find  it  still  offering  to  our  notice  animalcules  widely 
different  in  their  structure  from  any  that  we  have  as  yet  encoun- 
tered. They  are  all  of  them,  however,  distinguishable  by  one 
striking  feature  in  their  economy — namely,  that  they  are  pro- 
pelled through  the  water  by  means  of  vibratile  cilia,  which  are 
sometimes  distributed  over  the  entire  surface  of  their  bodies  ; 
while  in  others,  these  wonderful  organs  are  restricted  to  certain 
parts,  more  especially  to  the  vicinity  of  the  mouth.  The  posses, 
sion  of  a  moutJi,  as  the  reader  will  at  once  perceive,  is  in  itself  an 
important  character,  whereby  they  are  broadly  separated  from 
the  mouthless  Rhizopods.  And  when  we  add  to  this  that  they 

*  Met  with  in  stagnant  water. 

1 — 2 


20 


INFUSORIA. 


are  active  in  their  movements  and  definite  in  their  shape,  we  have 
said  enough  to  insure  their  not  being  confounded  with  any  of 
the  creatures  we  have  as  yet  examined.  The  evolutions  of  the 
ciliated  Infusoria  are  exceedingly  vivacious  ;  they  swim  about 


FIG.  12. — PARAMECIUM,  &c. 

with  great  activity,  avoiding  each  other  as  they  pass  in  their  rapid 
dance,  and  evidently  directing  their  motions  with  precision  and 
accuracy.  Their  instruments  of  locomotion  are  of  various  kinds  : 
some  are  provided  with  stiff  bristle-like  appendages  which  are 
moveable,  and  perform  in  some  measure  the  office  of  feet,  and  with 
little  hooklets  serving  for  attachment  to  foreign  bodies.  But  the 
most  important  locomotive  agents  are,  as  has  been  already  stated, 
the  cilia  with  which  they  are  invariably  furnished.  Their  vibra- 
tions never  seem  to  tire.  At  whatever  period  of  the  night  they 
may  be  examined,  they  are  always  found  as  actively  at  work  as 
in  the  day-time  :  they  never  sleep. 

The  cilia  are  intrusted  with  another  function  equally  important, 
viz.,  the  procuration  of  food  ;  for  those  situated  in  the  vicinity  of 


CILIATED  ANIMALCULES, 


21 


the  mouth,  in  which  position  they  are  always  most  evident,  pro- 
duce by  their  vibration  currents  in  the  surrounding  water,  which 
bring  to  the  mouth  smaller  animalcules  or  particles  of  vegetable 
matter  that  may  be  floating  in  the  neighbourhood — thus  insuring 
an  abundant  supply  of  nutriment  which,  without  such  assistance, 
it  would  be  impossible  for  these  living  atoms  to  obtain.  The  food 
thus  procured  is  at  once  swallowed,  and  accumulates  in  little 
pellets  in  the  interior  of  the  semi-fluid  substance  of  their  bodies, 
giving  rise  to  an  appearance  which  misled  Ehrenberg  to  suppose 
that  these  tiny  organisms  were  possessed  of  numerous  stomachs  : 
hence  they  were  formerly  named  P.ofygastria9*or  many-stomached 
animalcules. 


FlG.    IJ.—  S\VA. \-.\E  IK    AND    ITS    Dl 


_ 

FIG.  14.— COLEPS  AND  CHILO.MONAS. 


By  no  means  the  least  remarkable  part  of  the  nistory  of  the 
Infusoria  is  their  mode  of  propagation.  This  is  usually  accom- 
plished by  the  spontaneous  division  of  the  adult  animalcule  into 
two  or  more  portions,  each  of  which  in  a  short  time  becomes  in 
every  respect  a  complete  individual.  We  remember  in  our  boyish 
days  hearing  of  some  strange  machine  for  grinding  old  people 
young  again,  and  smiled  at  the  idea — little  thinking  that  the  con- 
version of  old  animals  into  young  ones  was,  in  sober  truth,  one 

r     i 

ot  the  commonest  operations  of  Nature.  The  body  of  an  animal- 
cule about  to  propagate  in  this  manner,  becomes  at  first  slightly 
elongated,  and  a  line,  more  transparent  than  the  rest,  is  seen  to 
cross  its  middle  portion  ;  a  constriction  next  becomes  apparent 
at  each  extremity  of  the  line  indicated,  which,  becoming  more 
decided  and  growing  gradually  deeper,  at  length  divides  the 
animalcule  into  two  halves,  only  connected  with  each  other  by  a 
narrow  isthmus,  and  as  this  gets  thinner  and  thinner,  a  slight 


*  TroXi's,  polus,  many ;  yaarep,  yaarpos,  gaster,  gastros,  tJit  stomacJi. 


22  INFUSORIA. 


effort  on  the  part  of  either  of  the  now  nearly  distinct  portions  is 
sufficient  to  sever  the  frail  bond  of  union  and  complete  the  sepa- 
ration. In  some  elongated  species  this  fissure  is  effected  in  a 
longitudinal  direction,  the  separation  gradually  proceeding  from 
the  posterior  to  the  anterior  portion  of  the  body.  Examples  of 
both  these  modes  of  increase  are  delineated  in  the  appended 
engravings  (Fig^.  12  and  13). 

If  the  organization  of  these  animalcules  were  as  simple  as  it 
was  supposed  to  be  a  few  years  ago,  when  they  were  thought 
to  be  mere  specks  of  living  jelly  imbibing  nourishment  through 
all  parts  of  the  soft  texture  of  their  bodies,  this  kind  of  spon- 
taneous division  would  be  a  very  simple  matter,  and  every  step 
of  the  process  easily  understood  ;  a  little  observation,  however, 
will  show  that  there  are  circumstances  attending  this  operation 
of  a  very  inexplicable  character.  Some  species,  as  for  example, 
Prorodon  teres*  represented  in  our  engraving  (Fig.  12,  b),  are 
furnished  with  a  very  curious  mouth  surrounded  by  a  cylinder 
composed  of  horny  teeth,  through  the  agency  of  which  their  food 
is  seized  and  swallowed.  Should  a  deed  of  separation,  therefore, 
have  to  be  drawn  up  preparatory  to  the  act  of  division,  it  might 
be  a  puzzling  question  for  the  infusorial  lawyers  to  settle  which 
half  should  have  the  mouth.  Even  this  difficulty  has,  however, 
been  provided  for ;  and,  accordingly,  a  new  mouth  and  a  new 
dental  cylinder  is  seen  to  sprout  from  the  hinder  half,  before  the 
animal,  originally  one  flesh,  proceeds  to  divorce  itself  into  two. 

This  mode  of  propagation,  in  which  multiplication  and  division 
go  hand  in  hand,  is  amazingly  productive,  and,  indeed,  far  sur- 
passes in  fertility  any  other  with  which  we  are  acquainted.  Every 
schoolboy  is  familiar  with  the  celebrated  problem  about  the  nails 
in  a  horse's  shoes,  or  the  squares  of  a  chess-board,  where  the  re- 
sults attainable  by  duplicative  multiplication  soon  pass  ordinary 
numerical  expressions.  Let  any  of  our  readers  try  the  same 
problem  with  one  of  these  animalcules.  An  individual,  if  well 
supplied  with  food,  has  been  observed  to  divide  at  least  once  in 
twenty-four  hours.  So  that  in  a  fortnight,  allowing  the  product 
of  each  division  to  multiply  at  the  same  rate,  sixteen  thousand 
three  hundred  and  eighty-four  would  be  produced  from  the  same 
stock,  and  in  four  weeks  two  hundred  and  sixty-eight  millions 
four  hundred  and  thirty-five  thousand  four  hundred  and  fifty-six, 
would  be  the  astounding  progeny  derived  from  a  single  animalcule. 

*  TrpJjpa,  prora,  fore  part ;  odbvs,  cdbvros,  odous,  odontos,  a  tooth- 


CILIATED  ANIMALCULES. 


We  feel,  therefore,  but  little  surprise  that,  with  such  powers  of 
propagation,  these  minute  creatures  soon  become  diffused  in 
countless  myriads  through  the  waters  adapted  to  their  habits. 


FlG.   15   —  VoRTICELLjC. 

Nor  is  this  all :  the  reproduction  of  these  prolific  animals  is 
sometimes  effected  in  various  ways,  and  not  unfrequently  the 
same  individual  is  found  to  propagate  by  two  or  three  different 
modes — thus,  many  species  are  multiplied  by  buds  which  sprout 
like  those  of  plants  from  the  surface  of  their  bodies,  and  speedily 
attaining  the  shape  of  their  parent,  develop  the  cilia  character- 
istic of  their  species. 


FIG.  16.  — VAGINICOLA.  ' 


Neither  is  it  difficult  to  understand  the  necessity  for  such 
amazing  fecundity.  These  moving  atoms  are  the  source  from 
which  innumerable  animals  derive  their  sustenance,  which,  in  their 


24  HYDROZOA. 


turn,  become  the  prey  of  creatures  higher  in  the  scale  of  life ; 
they,  therefore,  form  the  basis  of  that  mighty  pyramid  which 
bears  upon  its  apex  Man  himself.  They  are  the  boundaries  be- 
tween life  and  death,  the  steady  barrier  of  the  organic  world,  and 
although  until  a  few  years  ago  man  was  ignorant  of  their  very 
existence,  they  have  not  the  less  been  actively  employed  since 
first  creation  dawned.  As  individuals,  they  are  weak  enough ; 
but  in  their  countless  legions  they  become  perhaps  the  most  im- 
portant agents  in  the  grand  economy  of  Nature.  A  grain  of  sand 
is  but  a  despicable  atom  viewed  alone  ;  but  when  upon  the  beach 
these  sands  present  themselves  arrayed  in  the:r  broad  phalanx, 
where  can  we  obtain  a  stronger  bulwark  to  oppose  the  raging 
storm  ? 


CHAPTER  V. 
CORALLINES.    HYDROZOA.* 

lt  T  N  the  army  of  Xerxes  there  was  a  certain  race  called  Sagar- 
J_  tians.  The  mode  of  fighting  practised  by  these  men  was 
this :  When  they  engaged  an  enemy,  they  threw  out  a  rope  with 
a  noose  at  the  end  ;  whatever  any  one  caught,  either  horse  or 
man,  he  dragged  towards  himself,  and  those  that  were  entangled 
in  the  coils  he  speedily  put  to  death." — HERODOTUS,  vii.  85. 

Never  was  there  more  truth  than  in  the  old  saying,  "  There  is 
nothing  new  under  the  sun."  Who  would  have  supposed,  while 
reading  of  the  strange  feats  performed  by  the  Brazilian  with  his 
lasso,  by  the  aid  of  which  he  literally  takes  the  bull  by  the  horns, 
or  trips  up  the.  fleetest  steed,  that  the  same  weapon  was  used  ages 
ago  to  catch  Greeks  by  the  neck,  instead  of  horses  ?  much  less 
could  we  have  imagined  that  an  onslaught  apparently  so  uncouth 
and  barbarous  was  the  mode  of  warfare  of  a  very  considerable 
proportion  of  the  animal  creation  ;  and  yet,  seriously  speaking, 
this  is  the  case,  the  only  difference  being  that  the  lassos  employed 
by  mankind  ark  clumsily  made  of  twisted  leather,  whereas  their 
prototypes  present  a  delicacy  and  refinement  of  structure,  which 
it  requires  the  utmost  penetration  of  the  miscroscope  to  reveal. 
There  is  an  animal  easily  obtainable  in  summer-time  by  simply 
scraping  off  the  slimy  surface  from  the  sticks  or  leaves  that  float 
on  almost  every  pond,  called 

*  Hydra,  the  Hydra  ;  faov,  zoon,  an  animal. 


HYDRA.  25 


The  Hydra,*  the  history  of  which  is  so  curious  and  important 
as  to  demand  our  special  notice.  This  little  creature  resembles 
a  small  portion  of  green  transparent  thread,  fastened  by  one  end 
to  the  stems  of  water-plants,  while  the  other  is  furnished  with 
several  radiating  filaments  of  extreme  tenuity,  which  float  freely 
in  all  directions  :  should  one  of  the  numerous  water-fleas,  or  any 
other  minute  animal,  come  in  contact  with  these  floating  filaments, 
though  it  touch  but  the  tip  of  one  of  them,  it  is  at  once  arrested 
in  its  course,  and  in  spite  of  all  its  struggles  dragged  to  the  central 
mouth,  which  opens  to  receive  the  helpless  prey. 

The  body  of  the  hydra  consists  simply  of  a  little  gelatinous 
bag,  the  margins  of  which  are  furnished  with  filaments  employed 
as  tentacles,  whilst  at  the  opposite  end  there  is  a  little  sucker 
whereby  it  fixes  itself  to  foreign  objects.  The  microscope  reveals 


FIG.  17.—  LONG-ARMED  HYDRA. 


the  substance  of  these  creatures  to  be  composed  entirely  of  a 
transparent  glairy  matter,  in  which  granules  of  slightly  greater 
opacity  may  be  observed  to  float.  Notwithstanding  this  sim- 
plicity of  structure,  however,  they  are  able  to  move  from  place  to 
place  by  fixing  alternately  the  extremities  of  their  body  after  the 
manner  of  a  leech,  and  they  are  sensible  to  the  presence  of  light, 
which  they  always  approach. 

But  their  most  wonderful  attribute  is  that  of  being  able  inde- 
finitely to  reproduce  any  part  of  their  body  which  may  be  cut  off. 
If  a  hydra  be  cut  into  pieces,  each  individual  fragment,  however 
small,  will  speedily  become  a  perfect  animal,  in  all  respects  like 
the  original,  the  parts  which  were  defective  being  produced  in 
their  proper  situation.  If  with  fine  scissors  we  slit  one  half-way 
down,  the  result  will  be  a  hydra  with  two  mouths,  each  surrounded 

*  Hydra,  a  fabled  monster  that  reproduced  its  heads  as  fast  as  they  were  cut  off. 


2.6 


HYDRA. 


by  the  usual  number  of  tentacles  ;  if  these  be  again  and  again  and 
again  divided,  each  division  will  become  a  new  head,  thus  form- 
ing a  realization  of  the  fable  of  the  Lernean  Hydra.  Every  one 


FIG.  18  — HYDRA  VIVIDIS. 

of  the  tentacles  of  this  newly-formed  monster  will  capture  food, 
and  all  the  mouths  will  devour  it.  If  two  be  cut  across,  and  the 
fore  part  of  one  be  applied  to  the  hind  part  of  the  other,  the  two 
parts  will  unite  and  form  a  perfect  Polype  without  leaving  a  scar. 
They  may  even  be  turned  inside  out  like  a  glove  without  injury, 
and  in  this  state  will  remain,  that  which  was  the  external  surface 
now  being  the  stomach. 

Their  ordinary  mode  of  increase  is  by  the  young  ones  budding 
from  the  side  of  the  adult ;  but  previously  to  their  separation,  the 
offsets  themselves  often  send  out  side-buds,  so  that  several  gene- 
rations may  sometimes  be  found  branching  from  one  parent :  nine- 
teen young  of  various  ages  have  been  seen  thus  connected,  their 
numerous  long  tentacles  twining  about  in  inextricable  confusion. 

To  the  earlier  observers  of  the  habits  of  the  Hydrae,  nothing 
could  be  more  mysterious  than  their  power  of  seizing  and  retain- 
ing active  prey ;  but  this  is  now  readily  explained.  The  whole 
surface  of  their  tentacula  is  densely  provided  with  a  set  of  organs 
that  appear,  under  high  powers  of  the  microscope,  to  be  minute 
oval  vesicles,  something  like  little  soda-water  bottles,  in  each  of 


HYDRA. 


27 


which  is  coiled  up  a  long  and  delicate  filament,  not  unaptly  com- 
pared to  the  lasso  used  by  Brazilian  horsemen 

The  neck  of  each  vesicle  is  furnished  with  three  sharp  spines, 
which,  when  the  arms  are  prepared  to  seize  the  prey,  become  erect 
and  prominent.  The  mode  of  action  of  these  weapons  is  as  simple 
as  the  result  is  efficacious.  The  "  lasso-threads,"  with  their  viscid 
extremities,  speedily  involve  the  seized  victim  in  their  tenacious 
folds,  and  closely  bind  it  against  the  spines  with  which  the  skin 
of  the  hydra  is  studded ;  these,  probably,  in  their  turn,  become 
prehensile  instruments,  and  moreover  apparently  form  an  appa- 
ratus of  poison  fangs  of  a  very  deadly  character,  for  it  is  observable 
that  an  animal  once  seized  by  the  hydra,  even  should  it  escape 
from  its  clutches,  almost  immediately  perishes. 

We  have  dwelt  at  some  length  upon  the  history  of  the  hydra, 
partly  on  account  of  the  interest  which  attaches  to  an  animal  so 
simple  in  its  apparen  structure  and  yet  so  formidably  armed,  but 
more  especially  because  it  is  the  type  of  a  large  class  of  beautiful 
creatures,  to  which  we  must  now  beg  the  attention  of  the  young 
naturalist. 

The  Hydrse,  as  we  have 
seen,  are  capable  of  loco- 
motion, and  wander  about 
from  place  to  place ;  but  a 
vast  majority  of  the  animals 
most  nearly  allied  to  it  in 
organization,  in  their  adult 
condition  are  fixed  to  some 
foreign  object  upon  which 
they  grow. 


The  Club  Hydrae  (Coryne)* 
for  example  (Fig.  19),  are  always 
found  growing  upon  the  surface 
of  some  shell  or  stone,  to  which 
they  seem  rooted  by  the  extre- 
mity of  a  horny  tube  in  which 
they  live.  In  these  creatures  the 
upper  part  of  the  body  is  dilated 
into  a  kind  of  club-shaped  head, 
armed  with  tentacula,  which,  in- 
stead of  being  arranged  in  a 
single  circle  around  the  mouth, 
are  distributed  irregularly  over  the  exterior  in  such  a  manner  that,  at  first  sight, 


FIG.  19. — CORYNE:  a  b,  magnified;  c,  natural  size. 


],  korune,  a  club. 


2:8 


CORALLINES. 


they  seem  as  though  they  could  be  of  little  use  in  procuring  food.  On  watch- 
ing a  living  specimen,  however,  their  efficiency  is  soon  rendered  manifest.  No 
sooner  does  a  passing  animal  impinge  against  one  of  these  filaments  than  it 
is  seized  upon  by  the  lasso-threads,  with  which  they  are  armed,  and  held  with 
mortal  grasp.  The  mouth  of  the  Coryne  is  not  a  simple  orifice,  but  a  pro- 
trusible  and  flexible  proboscis,  the  extremity  of  which  can  be  directed  towards 
any  tentacle  whereunto  the  prey  happens  to  be  adherent,  and  thus  the  creature 
feeds  itself  exactly  in  the  same  manner  as  the  hydra  described  above. 

The  Tube  Hydra  (Tubularia)*  constructed  very  much  after  the  same 
plan  as  the  preceding,  resides  in  a  slender  horny  tube 
resembling  a  straw  full  of  mucilaginous  pith,  rooted  on 
a  solid  substance  below,  and  crowned  by  a  living  head, 
resembling  a  fine  scarlet  blossom  with  a  double  row  of 
tentacula,  and  often  with  pendent  clusters  like  grapes. 
Though  perfect  as  a  single  stem,  it  is  seldom  found 
solitary  ;  from  ten  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  stalks  are 
generally  crowded  together,  and  constitute  a  brilliant 
group,too  gorgeously  coloured  to  be  effectively  portrayed 
by  art.  The  tallest  specimens  rise  thirteen  inches  high, 
and  are  generally  found  on  dead  shells.  The  heads, 
or  hydr<z,  are  not  retractile  into  the  tube  ;  but,  strange 
to  say,  are  continually  falling  off,  and  are  replaced.  Six 
have  been  seen  to  be  thus  reproduced,  one  after  the 
other,  in  six  months.  Dwelling  among  the  ravenous 
inhabitants  of  the  deep,  the  delicate  organs  of  these 
defenceless  beings  are  thus  subject  to  continual  de- 
struction; but  if  they  should  be  mutilated,  torn  asunder, 
or  divided,  they  again  rise  unhurt.  Wounds  or  lace- 
rations do  not  impair  the  vital  principle,  and  thus  abun- 
dance is  secured  —  the  widow's  cruse  is  constantly 
replenished. 

The  Sea- Wreaths  (Sertularief)  t  are  known  to  every  sea-side  visitor.  In 
these  elegant  productions  the  stem  is  generally  branched  into  innumerable 
arborescent  forms,  so  plant-like  in  their  aspect,  that  when  gathered  on  the 
beach,  they  are  not  unfrequently  confounded  by  our  lady  friends,  under  the 
name  of  "  sea-weeds,"  with  sundry  vegetable  growths  of  kindred  appearance, 
and  sometimes,  spread  out  by  fairy  fingers  and  laid  out  in  tasteful  groups,  they 
seem  themselves  pathetically  to  join  in  the  petition  so  often  appended  to  them 
by  their  fair  collectors, — 

"Oh,  call  us  not  weeds,  but  flowers  of  the  sea !  " 

Beautiful,  however,  as  these  "sea-weeds"  are  when  thus  embalmed,  we,  for 
our  part,  prefer  to  se,e  them  living  in  their  native  element,  where  they  present 
a  spectacle  of  matchless  interest,  viewed  even  with  an  ordinary  microscope. 
When  thus  examined,  they  are  found  to  be  made  up  of  branching  tubes,  along 
the  sides  of  which  are  ranged  in  close  array  little  cells  or  cups,  sometimes 
many  thousands  in  number.  Each  cell  contains  a  hungry  hydra,  with  its  arms 
spread  out  in  search  of  food,  ready  to  seize  and  drag  into  its  mouth  whatever 
offers  in  the  way  of  aliment.  These  Polype-cells  are  variously  disposed  in 
different  species,  but  they  all  agree  in  being  sessile,  that  is,  closely  sitting  on 


FlG.    20. — TuBULARIA 
INDIVISA. 


Tubulus,  a  little  tube. 


t  Sertula,  a  little  ivrcath. 


CORALLINES. 


29 


the  branchlet  where  they  grow.  Dispersed  among  these  cells,  at  certain 
periods  of  the  year,  others  are  seen  of  different  shape:  these  are  the  seed- 
cups,  one  of  which  is  represented  in  our  figure.  In  these  elegant  vases  are 
formed  the  germs  of  innumerable  progeny,  which,  when  mature,  swim  forth 
like  little  flakes  of  jelly  (planitlce]  covered  externally  with  countless  cilia, 
enabling  them  to  roam  at  large  in  the  surrounding  water,  till  they  meet  with 
a  fit  resting-place  whereon  to  settle  down  and  found  another  colony  as  won- 
derful as  that  from  which  they  sprung. 


•.  •  - 


FIG.  22.— LAOMEDEA. 


FIG.  21. — SEKTCLAKIA  OPERCULATA. 

Closely  resembling  the  sea- wreaths— so  much 
so,  indeed,  that  they  might  easily  be  mistaken 
the  one  for  the  other — are 

The  Bell  Corallines  (Campanularid)*  a 
specimen  of  which  is  represented  in  the  figure 
appended  (Fig.  22).  There  are,  however,  im- 
portant differences  between  the  two  families, 

which  it  will  be  necessary  to  explain.  In  the  Scrtularians,  as  we  pointed  out, 
the  Polype-cells  are  sessile,  closely  sitting  on  the  stem.  In  the  Campanula- 
rians  every  Polype-cup  is  raised  on  a  small  stalk  or  pedicle,  so  as  to  resemble 
a  little  wine-glass,  the  horny  stem  being  ringed  at  intervals,  thus  giving  a 
certain  flexibility  to  all  the  branchlets.  The  little  vases,  where  the  young  are 
formed,  are  always  found  to  sprout  just  from  the  angle  where  the  Polype-cells 
join  to  the  central  stem,  and  are  much  larger  and  of  different  shape.  The  most 
important  difference,  however,  is,  that  in  this  family  the  young,  instead  of 
being  ciliated  germs  (planula:},  are  active  organisms,  so  unlike  their  parents 
as  to  be  quite  unrecognizable  as  belonging  to  the  same  stock :  insomuch,  in- 
deed, that  before  describing  them,  it  will  be  necessary  to  make  the  student 
acquainted  with  another  series  of  beautiful  creatures  that  await  our  notice. 

Acalephae.t — The  ocean  in  every  climate  swarms  with  infinite 
multitudes  of  animals  which,  from  their  minuteness  and  trans- 


Campanula,  a  little,  bell. 


\  a.Ka\ri<pTi,  akalephe,  a  nettle. 


30  JELL  Y-FISHES. 


parency,  are  almost  as  imperceptible  as  the  Infusoria  themselves. 
All,  however,  are  not  equally  minute  :  some  grow  to  a  large  size, 
and  various  forms  of  these  are  familiar  to  the  inhabitants  of  every 
beach,  upon  which,  when  cast  up  by  the  waves,  they  lie,  like 
masses  of  jelly,  melting,  as  it  were,  in  the  sun,  exhibiting  but  few 
traces  of  that  elaborate  structure  which  more  careful  examination 
discovers  them  to  possess.  Their  uncouth  appearance  has  gained 
for  them  various  appellations  by  which  they  are  generally  known, 
as  Sea-jelly,  Sea-blubber,  or  Jelly-fishes  ;  whilst,  from  disagreeable 


FIG.  ^3. — JELLY-FISH. 

sensations  produced  by  handling  most  of  them,  they  have  been 
called  Sea-nettles,  Stingers  or  Stangcrs.  Their  faculty  of  sting- 
ing is,  indeed,  the  most  prominent  feature  they  exhibit,  so  that 
their  names  in  almost  all  languages  are  derived  from  this  cir- 
cumstance. They  were  known  to  the  older  naturalists  by  the 
title  of  Urticcs  marina,  and  the  scientific  appellation  whereby 
they  are  generally  designated  is  of  similar  import.  The  forms  of 
these  gelatinous  creatures  cannot  well  be  distinguished  when  thus 
cast  up  by  the  waves ;  but  if  we  look  over  the  side  of  a  ship  at 
anchor,  or  take  an  excursion  in  a  boat,  we  shall  see  many  float- 
ing freely  in  their  own  element,  and  displaying  all  the  elegance 
and  beauty  of  their  structure.  The  species  most  commonly  met 
with  assume  the  form  of  a  mushroom,  or  umbrella-shaped  disk, 
composed  of  transparent  jelly.  They  move  by  alternately  ex- 
panding and  contracting  their  bodies,  and  swim  with  their  upper 
surface  directed  forwards,  while  their  fringes  and  tentacles  follow 
behind,  "  like  streamers  long  and  gay." 

The  Long-tailed  Stinger  (Cyanca*  capillata]  of  our  seas  is  a  most  formidable 

,  kuancos,  dark. 


JELLY-DISHES.  31 


creature,  and  the  terror  of  tender-skinned  bathers.  With  its  broad,  tawny,  festooned 
and  scalloped  disk,  often  a  full  foot  or  even  more  across,  it  flaps  its  way  through  the 
yielding  waters,  and  drags  after  it  a  long  train  of  riband-like  arms,  and  seemingly  inter- 
minable tails,  marking  its  course  when  the  body  is  far  away  from  us.  Once  tangled  in 
its  trailing  "hair,"  the  unfortunate  who  has  recklessly  ventured  across  the  monster's 
path  soon  writhes  in  prickly  torture.  Every  straggle  but  binds  the  poisonous  threads 
more  firmly  round  his  body,  and  then  there  is  no  escape ;  for  when  the  winder  of  the  fatal 
net  finds  his  course  impeded  by  the  terrified  human  wrestling  in  his  coils,  seeking  no 
combat  with  the  mightier  biped,  he  casts  loose  his  envenomed  arms  and  sw.ms  away. 
The  amputated  weapons,  severed  from  their  parent  body,  vent  vengeance  on  the  cause 
of  their  destruction,  and  sting  as  fiercely  as  if  their  original  proprietor  gave  the  word  of 
attack. — PROF.  FORBES. 


FlG.  24--SAKSIA. 


The  Tube-mouthed  Sarsia  (Sarsia*  tubulosa)  (Fig.  24),  is  a  species  of  smaller 
dimensions,  which,  as  it  floats  along,  might  be  supposed,  sylph-like,  to  live  on  light  and 
quaff  the  ether,  but  is  in  reality  by  no  means  addicted  to  such  scanty  diet.  A  few  of 
them  being  kept  by  Professor  Forbes  in  a  jar  of  salt  water,  in  which  were  some  small 
shrimps,  devoured  these  animals,  so  much  more  highly  organized  than  themselves,  vora- 
ciously, app?rently  enjoying  the  destruction  of  the  upper  classes  with  a  truly  democratic 
relish.  One  of  them  even  attacked,  and  commenced  swallowing,  a  medusa,  quite  as 
good  as  itself.  An  animal  that  can  pout  out  its  mouth  to  twice  the  length  of  its  body, 
and  stretch  its  stomach  to  proportionate  dimensions,  must  indeed  be  a  triton  among  the 
minnows,  and  a  very  terrific  one  too.  Yet  is  this  ferocious  creature  one  of  the  most 
delicate  inhabitants  of  the  ocean,  and  a  very  model  of  tenderness  and  elegance. — PROF. 
FORBES. 

In  many  species,  as  in  that  represented  in  Fig.  23,  the  margin 
of  the  transparent  disk  is  fringed  with  short  and  slender  tentacles, 
each  of  which  springs  from  a  fleshy  bulb,  wherein  is  set  a  speck 
of  deep  purple  colour,  thought  to  he  an  eye,  giving  an  appearance 
as  though  the  body  was  surrounded  with  a  circlet  of  gems.  On 
taking  it  into  a  dark  room  and  striking  the  glass,  every  purple  eye 
becomes  lighted  into  a  phosphoric  flame,  and  again  and  again  the 
crown  of  light  may  be  made  to  flash  forth,  but  less  brilliantly  than 
at  first,  until  at  length  each  tiny  lamp,  after  sparkling  for  a  mo- 
ment, wanes,  and  all  is  dark  again  ;  and  at  last  it  refuses  to  shine 
any  more. 

These  bell-shaped  Acalephs  are  exceedingly  prolific.     Their 

*  Sars,  a  proper  name. 


32  JELLY-FISHES. 


usual  mode  of  increase,  as  will  be  explained  further  on,  is  by  means 
of  eggs  or  ciliated  gemmules  ;  nevertheless,  there  are  some  of 
them  which,  like  the  hydra,  are  propagated  by  offshoots  that 
spring  as  buds  from  various  parts  of  the  body,  with  which  they 
remain  connected,  like  branches  issuing  from  a  plant.  "  Fancy/' 
says  Professor  Forbes,  "  an  elephant  with  a  number  of  little  ele- 
phants sprouting  from  his  shoulders,  bunches  of  tusked  monsters 
hanging,  epaulette-fashion,  from  his  flanks,  in 
every  stage  of  advancement.  On  his  right 
shoulder  a  youthful  chuny,  with  head,  trunk, 
toes,  no  legs,  and  a  shapeless  body ;  on  the 
left  an  infant  elephant,  better  grown  and 
struggling  to  get  away,  but  as  yet  fast  by  the 
tail,  and  incapable  of  liberty  and  free  action. 
FIG.  25,-THAUMANTiAs.  The  comparison  may  seem  grotesque  and  ab- 
surd, but  it  really  expresses  what  continually 
occurs  among  these  Medusae.*  It  is  true  that  the  latter  are 
minute  ;  but  wonders  are  not  the  less  wonderful  for  being  packed 
in  a  small  compass.  A  whale  is  not  above  a  minnow  for  his  mere 
bigness." 

It  was,  doubtless,  a  brave  attempt  of  the  adventurer  who  first 
dared  to  trust  himself  in  a  boat  upon  the  surface  of  the  ocean ; 
neither  is  it  difficult  to  imagine  the  trembling  confidence  with 
which  he  framed  his  rude  bark,  and  hoisted  the  rough  sail  of  mat 
or  canvas  to  the  favouring  breeze,  following  the  course  of  some 
great  river — the  Euphrates  or  the  Tigris — till  he  reached  the  sea, 
vaunting  himself  upon  his  ingenuity ;  and  yet,  to  his  astonish- 
ment, he  must  have  found,  dancing  before  him  on  the  sun-lit  wave, 
a  boat,  far  more  beautiful  than  that  he  had  contrived,  with  mast, 
and  sail,  and  ballast,  all  complete. 

The  Sallee-man  (Vddla\  scaphoidai],  as  it  is  prettily  named  in  Latin,  consists 

of  a  transparent  disk  of  purest  jelly, 
supported  by  a  delicate  plate  of  firmer 
texture,  lodged  in  its  interior ;  upon  its 
upper  surface  there  is  raised  a  mast — a 
thin,  broad  film  of  cartilage,  on  which 
is  spread  a  sail  worthy  to  waft  along  a 
fairy  queen;  while  from  beneath  hang 
polype-like  appendages,  that  fish  for 
food.  To  perfect  so  beautiful  a  con- 
trivance, in  Ralaria,  a  kindred  species, 
FIG.  26.— VELELLA.  the  crest  is  found  to  contain  fibrous 

*  The  Acalephs  are  frequently  called  "Medusa,"  their  stinging  appendages  being 
compared  to  the  snakes  on  Medusa's  head,  f  Velella,  a  little  sail;  scaphoidea,  like  a  boat. 


JELL  Y-FISHES.  3  3 


threads,  apparently  of  a  muscular  nature,  by  the  contractions  of  which  the  sail  can  be 
lowered  or  elevated  at  the  pleasure  of  the  little  manner. 

Perhaps  there  are  few  animals  more  beautiful  than 

The  Globe  Beroe  (Cydippe*  Pilens}  (Fig.  27).  If  placed  in  a  glass  of  clear  sea- 
water,  it  looks  like  a  sphere  of  the  purest  ice,  from  which  can  be  protruded  two  long 
tentacles,  each  of  which  is  furnished  along  one  side  with  a  series  of  spirally-twisting 
filaments.  Stretching  from  pole  to  pole  of  this  translucent  little  orb,  like  lines  of  longi- 
tude upon  a  globe,  and  placed  at  equal  distances,  are  eight  broad  bands  of  more  con- 
sistence than  the  other  portion  of  the  body.  On  each  of  these  bands  are  placed  thirty 
or  forty  paddles,  exactly  comparable  in  their  shape  to  the  floats  upon  the  paddle-wheels 


of  a  steamboat ;  and  in  like  manner  by  means  of  these  the  little  creature  rows  itself 
along.  Man  to  move  his  wheels  must  have  much  cumbersome  machinery — the  furnace, 
and  the  boiler,  and  the  herculean  arm,  that  makes  the  enginery  revolve.  Nature  wants 
none  of  these  encumbrances :  her  paddles  are  themselves  alive,  and  move  at  will  with 
such  degree  of  force  as  may  be  needed,  either  at  once  or  singly,  or  in  groups,  working 
with  mutual  consent  m  any  way  required.  Thus,  do  they  all  row  equally,  the  little 
beroe  shoots  meteor-like  along,  or  if  a  few  relax  their  energy,  wheels  round  in  broad 
gyrations,  or  revolves  upon  its  axis  with  inimitable  ease  and  grace. 

Neither  are  Nature's  steamboats  left  without  the  means  of 
anchoring.  Whoever  has  been  on  board  one  of  our  sea-going 
leviathans  must  have  been  surprised  to  see  the  massive  anchors 
and  the  tons  of  rope  or  iron  cable  coiled  up  in  the  hold,  the 
labouring  capstan  and  the  mighty  gear  required  to  run  them  out 
or  heave  them  up.  With  all  this  cumbrous  load  Nature  dispenses. 
The  beroe,  when  it  chooses,  can  put  forth  from  one  end  of  its 
body  what  appear  like  filaments  of  molten  glass,  which,  as  we 
watch  them,  lengthen,  as  it  were  by  magic,  and  from  their  sides 

*  Cydippe,  the  name  cf  a  goddess. 


34 


JELLY-FISHES. 


unfold  transparent  tendrils,  like  the  tendrils  of  a  vine,  which, 
twining  round  some  foreign  object,  hold  the  little  bark  secure. 
When  no  longer  wanted,  shrinking  back  into  itself,  this  apparatus 
vanishes  from  view,  leaving  no  trace  of  its  existence. 

Minuter  forms  of  these  beroes  throng  the  icy  seas  in  countless 
myriads,  and  their  abundance  and  exceeding  beauty  have  at- 
tracted the  attention  of  all  northern  voyagers.  Great  shoals  of 
them  are  there  met  with,  discolouring  the  water  for  a  vast  extent 
Scoresby  observed  that  the  colour  of  the  Greenland  Sea  varies 
from  ultramarine  blue  to  olive  green,  and  from  the  purest  trans- 
parency to  striking  opacity,  appearances  which  are  not  transitory 
but  permament.  The  green  semi-opaque  water  mainly  owes  its 
singular  aspect  to  minute  beroes  and  infusorial  animalcules.  It 

is  calculated  to  form  one- 
fourth  part  of  the  Green- 
land  seas,   between  the 
parallels  74°  and  8p°.    It 
is  liable  to  alterations  in 
its  position,  from  the  ac- 
tion of  currents,  but  it  is 
always  renewed  near  cer- 
tain situations  from  year 
to   year.       The    whales 
throng    in   this    opaque 
water,  for  to  them  it  is  a 
good    wholesome    soup, 
nourishing  enough,  as  may  be  judged  from  the  following  curious 
calculation  :  "The  number  of  Medusae,"  writes  Mr.  Scoresby,  "in 
the  olive  green  water  was  found  to  be  immense.  They  were  about 
one-fourth  of  an  inch  asunder.     In  this  proportion  a  cubic  inch 
of  water  must  contain  64;  a  cubic  foot,  1 10,592  ;  a  cubic  fathom, 
23,887,872  ;  and  a  cubical   mile  about    23,888,000,000,000,000 ! 
From  soundings  made  in  the  situation  where  these  animals  were 
found,  it  is  probable  that  the  sea  is  upwards  of  a  mile  in  depth  ; 
but  whether  the  substances  occupy  the  whole  depth  is  uncertain. 
Provided,  however,  the  depth  to  which  they  extend  be  but  two 
hundred  and  fifty  fathoms,  the  above  immense  number  of  one 
species  may  occur  in  a  space  two  miles  square.     It  may  give  a 
better  conception  of  the  amount  of  Medusse  in  this  extent  if  we 
calculate  the  length  of  time  that  would  be  requisite  with  a  certain 
number  of  persons  for  counting  this  number.    Allowing  that  one 
person  could  count  a  million  in  seven  days,  which  is  barely  pos- 


FIG.  28.— FOOD  OF  THE  WHALE. 
i.  Limacina  helicina;  2,  3,  4.  Medusa;  5.  Clio  borealis. 


JELLY-FISHES. 


35 


sible,  it  would  have  required  that  eighty  thousand  persons  should 
have  started  at  the  creation  of  the  world  to  complete  the  enume- 
ration at  the  present  time." 

The  Medusae  in  question  wrere  heroes,  called  "Fountain-fishes" 
by  the  earlier  voyagers  to  Spitzbergen,  who,  mistaking  the  cause 
of  the  eight  bands  of  iridescence  gleaming  along  the  sides  of  their 
bodies,  fancied  they  were  so  many  rivulets  of  lustrous  water. 

In  a  third  form  of  these  beautiful  creatures,  hence  denominated 

Hydrostatic  Acalephse,  the  animal  is  supported  in  the  water  by  a  very 
peculiar  organ,  or  set  of  organs,  consisting  ot  one  or  more  bladders  filled  with 
air,  which  are  appended  to  the  body  in  various  positions,  so  as  to  act  as  floats 
of  sufficient  buoyancy  to  sustain  the  creature  upon  the  surface  of  the  sea. 

The  Physalia*  (Fig.  29),  known  to  sailors  by  the  name  of  the  Portuguese  man-of- 
war,  has  this  swimming  apparatus  single  and  of  great  proportionate  size,  so  that  when 
full  of  air  it  is  exceedingly  buoyant,  and  floats  conspicuously  upon  the  waves.  It  closely 
resembles,  when  seen  from  the  deck  of  a  vessel,  a  child's  mimic  ship  with  its  sails  set; 
and  excites  the  wonder  of  those  who  behold  it,  to  see  so  delicate  and  frail  a  bark 
breasting  the  billows,  as  it  seems  that  the  first  breaking  sea  must  inevitably  overwhelm 
and  dash  it  to  pieces.  Yet  there  it  floats,  and  dances 
now  on  the  curling  crest,  now  in  the  deep  hollow,  in 
spite  of  wind  and  wave.  Often  while  passing  just 
under  the  lee  of  the  vessel,  the  sudden  lull  made  by  the 
interposition  ot  so  great  a  body  between  it  and  the 
wind  will  cause  it  for  a  moment  to  lie  flat  on  the  water; 
but  it  instantly  resumes  its  upright  position.  When 
examined  closely,  the  animal  is  seen  to  consist  of  an 
oblong  transparent  bladder,  surmounted  by  a  kind  of 
crumpled  crest  of  a  delicate  pink  colour.  From  one 
end  of  the  bottom  of  this  bladder  proceeds  a  large 
bunch  of  appendages  of  various  shapes,  which  trail  in 
the  surrounding  water.  These  hanging  tentacles  are 
of  a  very  beautiful  colour  and  possess  the  power  of 
stinging  in  a  formidable  degree." — MR.  GOSSE. 

The  long  cables,  or  tentacula,  can  be  thrown  out  to 
a  great  distance — to  twelve  or  even  eighteen  feet,  and 
by  the  aid  of  these  the  Physahre  are  able  to  catch  any 
small  fishes  that  may  come  in  their  reach ;  and  which, 
by  the  wonderful  retractile  power  of  these  appendages, 
are  speedily  conveyed  to  the  short  suckers  or  mouths, 
whereby  the  prey  is  devoured.  On  placing  the  physaha 
in  a  tub  of  water  with  some  little  fishes,  they  were  im- 
mediately entangled  in  its  grasp,  and  the  tubes  were 
soon  seen  to  be  filled  with  portions  of  the  fish  sucked 
into  their  interior.  It  is  a  very  interesting  sight  to 
watch  one  of  these  animals  thus  placed  in  a  large  tub 
of  water,  sometimes  coiling  up  its  tentacles  to  within 
half  an  inch  of  their  bladder-like  support,  and  then 
darting  them  out  with  surprising  velocity  to  the  dis- 
tance of  several  feet,  entwining  and  benumbing  their  prey,  and  then  dragging  it  towards 
their  polype-like  mouths. — DR.  BENNETT. 


FIG.  29.— PHYSALIA. 


<pvaa\ls,  phusalis,  a  bladder. 


3 — 2 


JELLY-FISHES. 


And  now,  reverting  to  the  Hydrae  and  Jelly-fishes  described 
in  the  few  last  pages,  so  diverse  in  their  forms  and  attributes, 
the  reader  perhaps  begins  to  wonder  what  relationship  exists 
among  them  that  they  should  thus  be  classified  as  members  of 
the  same  great  family;  and  this  we  must  next  proceed  to  explain. 
Any  one  who  will  examine,  with  a  little  industry,  the  surface 
of  the  stones,  or  shells,  or  rocks  upon  the  shore,  just  at  the  lowest 
point  of  the  ebb-tide,  will  probably  observe,  clinging  to  their  sur- 
face, numerous  delicate  white  tufts  or  tassels,  every  one  of  which, 
examined  closely,  is  found  to  be  a  hydra,  scarcely  different  in  its 
form  or  habits  from  that  we  have  described  in  a  preceding  page. 
This  marine  hydra  has  received  the  name  of  Hydra  tuba :  it 
quite  equals  in  voracity  its  fresh-water  namesake,  is  equally  for- 
midable in  its  armature  of 
lasso-threads,  and  is  ordina- 
rily multiplied  in  the  same 
manner  by  buds  or  gemmae 
that  sprout  from  its  surface  : 
at  certain  seasons,  however, 
he  body  of  the  Hydra  tuba 
becomes  considerably  elong- 
ated, and  divided  by  constric- 
tions into  numerous  segments 
resembling  a  pile  of  saucers 
placed  one  within  the  other. 
Shortly,  from  the  margin  of 
each  saucer,  tentacles  are 
seen  to  sprout,  not  resembling  those  of  the  hydra,  but  those  of  the 
Medusae,  and  after  a  little  while  these  saucers,  detaching  them- 
selves successively  from  the  top  of  the  pile  swim  away,  completely 
formed  and  active  Acalephae  (Fig.  30). 

The  Campanularian  Zoophytes  (Fig.  22),  as  we  have  explained, 
produce  their  young  in  elegant  transparent  vases,  which  sprout 
from  the  bases  of  their  Polype-bearing  branchlets  ;  yet,  when 
these  vases  open,  they  send  forth,  not  ciliated  embryos,  as  is  the 
case  with  the  Sertularian  Polypes  (Fig.  21),  but  Acalephs,  that 
swim  about  like  little  parachutes,  cast  out  by  thousands  into  the 
surrounding  water.  On  the  other  hand,  the  young  of  the  Medusae 
are  found,  in  the  first  stage  of  their  existence,  exactly  to  resemble 
hydriform  Polypes — proving  at  least  the  existence  of  'a  relation- 
ship among  them,  although  its  extent  is  as  yet  very  imperfectly 
understood.  Still,  we  are  now  sufficiently  acquainted  with  the 


i'lG.    30. — TUKKIS    AND    ITS    YOUNG. 


CORALS.  37 


main  features  of  their  lives  to  state  the  following  facts  as  showing 
forth  their  history. 

The  compound  stem  of  the  zoophyte  is  composed  of  Polypes 
(Zooids),  living  an  associated  life,  and  so  connected  together  as 
to  produce  the  most  graceful,  plant-like  structures — vegetating 
like  a  tree,  putting  forth  thousands  of  Polype-buds  like  leaves, 
but  all  of  them  alive,  and  hungrily  supplying  the  commonwealth 
with  food.  After  a  time,  however — just  as  a  plant  puts  forth  its 
flowers — buds  are  produced,  charged  with  the  perpetuation  of  the 
species ;  and  these  soon  ripen  into  transparent  urns,  beautifully 
sculptured  and  furnished  with  lids  which,  when  opened,  give  issue 
to  innumerable  active  blossoms,  able  to  flit  about  through  the 
water  like  butterflies,  laden  with  eggs,  and  ready  to  disseminate 
their  race  through  distant  seas. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
CORALS.    ANTHOZOA.* 

IF  earth  can  boast  its  gardens  and  parterres,  so  can  the  bottom 
of  the  sea  ;  nor  do  the  flowers  of  ocean  yield  one  jot,  either 
in  the  elegance  of  their  forms  or  the  brilliancy  of  their  colouring, 
to  the  blossoms  that  adorn  the  realms  of  Flora.  The  Corallines 
that  we  have  hitherto  considered,  constitute,  as  it  were,  but  the 
mosses  and  the  lichens  of  the  coral  landscape  :  we  must  now  turn 
our  attention  to  the  larger  plants  and  shrubs.  The  Zoophytes, f 
that  next  present  themselves  to  our  consideration,  imitate  nearly 
every  variety  of  terrestrial  vegetation.  Trees  of  coral  exist,  which, 
though  they  do  not  equal  in  size  the  oaks  of  our  forests,  are  grace- 
fully branched,  and  their  whole  surface  blooms  with  coral-polypes 
in  the  place  of  leaves  and  flowers.  Our  shrubs,  our  rose-trees, 
beds  of  pinks  and  feathery  ferns  are  all  reflected,  as  it  were,  in 
mimic  beauty.  Some  species  spread  themselves  into  broad 
leaves,  studded  with  Polype  flowers.  The  gorgeous  blossoms  of 
the  cactus,  the  full-blown  sunflower,  and  the  wreathing  vine  have 
each  their  living  representatives.  Besides  these  forms,  imitating 

*  av6os,  anthos,  a  flvwer  ;  faov,  zoon,  an  animal:  so  called  from  their  resemblance 
to  flowers. 

t  &ov,  zoon,  an  animal ;  farov,  phyton.  a  plant :  thus  named  by  the  older  natu- 
ralists from  their  plant-like  appearance. 


CORALS. 


vegetation,  the  shapes  of  graceful  vases  rear  themselves  amid  the 
fairy  scene,  festooned  with  coral  branchlets,  and  there  are  solid 
hemispheres  resembling  domes  bedecked  with  Polype  stars  of 
purple  and  of  emerald  green,  huge  fans  expand  on  every  side, 
and  Madrepores  are  crowded  round  in  turfy  clumps  to  variegate 


FIG.  31. — MADREPORES. 

the  prospect.  Words,  however  extravagant  they  may  appear,  can 
convey  no  exaggerated  impression  of  such  a  scene,  for  fancy's  work 
could  never  be  more  strangely  beautiful.  It  is  not,  however,  in 
their  luxuriance  of  growth  that  we  must  introduce  the  Anthozoa 
to  the  contemplation  of  the  student ;  we  must  select  a  few  among 
the  multitude  for  special  study. 

The  Alcyons  (Alcyonium). — Every  stroller  upon  the  beach  must  fre- 
quently have  found,  cast  up  by  the  retiring  waves,  rude  shapeless  lumps  of 
leathery  consistence,  known  by  the  vulgar  as  Cow's  paps  or  Dead  marts  fingers 
— names  which,  however  characteristic,  are  by  no  means  calculated  to  invite 
attention.  Nevertheless,  on  placing  one  of  these  misshapen  masses  in  ajar 
of  clear  sea-water,  it  will  soon  present  a  spectacle  that  must  command  our 
admiration.  Slowly  the  unsightly  fabric  swells,  as  though  by  imbibing  the 
water  in  which  it  is  immersed,  and  as  it  dilates  to  a  larger  and  still  larger  size, 
assumes  a  transparency  that  it  did  not  possess  before.  When  fully  expanded, 
little  pits  or  cells  appear  upon  its  surface,  and  from  each  of  these  there  issues 
forth  a  living  flower,  for  such  it  seems,  which,  gradually  expanding  till  it  has 
attained  its  full  development,  begins  to  fish  for  prey  in  the  surrounding  water 
by  means  of  the  petal-like  tentacles  placed  around  its  mouth.  The  food  thus 


CORALS. 


39 


obtained,  having  been  conveyed  into  the  stomach  of  the  Polype  that  caught 
it,  and  digested  there,  is  absorbed  into  the  general  mass  of  the  Alcyon,  which 

in  this  way  derives  its  nourishment 
from  the  numerous  sources  of  supply 
distributed  over  its  surface. 

The  Polypes  that  are  thus  pro- 
truded will  be  found,  on  examina- 
tion, to  differ  very  materially  in  their 
structure  from  the  Hydras  described 
in  the  preceding  chapter.  In  the 
Anthozoa  the  Polypes,  when  ex- 


FIG.  32.  — ALC\ON. 


panded,  are  found  to  have  eight 
hollow  tentacles,  the  margins  of 
which  are  fringed  by  a  triple  row 
of  minute  fleshy  papillae. 

These  tentacles  surround  a  cen- 
tral orifice,  which  is  the  mouth. 
Internally,  we  may  perceive  that 

each  Polype  is  furnished  with  a  distinct  stomach,  suspended  in  the  centre  of 
its  body,  not  simply  excavated  in  the  gelatinous  substance.  The  space  be- 
tween this  stomach  and  the  walls  of  the  Polype  is  divided  into  compartments 
by  membranous  partitions,  whereby  the  stomach  is  suspended  and  retained 
in  its  position.  These  differences  of  structure,  which  are  sufficiently  evident, 
at  once  enable  us  to  distinguish  the  Hydrozoa  from  the  Anthozoic 
Zoophytes. 

Madrepores.— It  is  evident  that  the  Alcyons  described  above 
must  necessarily  be  of  very  limited  dimensions,  else  from  the 
general  softness  of  their  bodies  they  would  be  overwhelmed  by 
their  own  weight.  If,  therefore,  animals  of  similar  organization 


CORALS. 


are  required  constructed  upon  a  larger  scale,  it  becomes  needful 
that  the  whole  fabric  should  be  supported  upon  some  internal 
framework  or  scaffolding,  of  a  nature  sufficiently  firm  and  unyield- 
ing to  sustain  the  general  body,  and  thus  allow  full  room  for  the 
expansion  of  the  flower-like  Polypes.  In  a  vast  majority  of  in- 
stances, therefore,  the  common  substance  of  these  creatures  has 
the  power  of  depositing  earthy  particles  derived  from  the  sur- 
rounding water,  wherewith  if  builds  a  massive  skeleton,  present- 
ing upon  its  surface  innumerable  little  pits  or  cells  wherein  the 
Polypes  lodge.  Such  are 

The  Madrepores,  whose  skeletons  form  the  ornaments  of  our  cabinets, 
and  of  which  a  small  fragment  is  delineated  in  the  accompanying  engraving 
(Fig.  34). 


FIG.  34.— MADREPORE. 


FIG.  35.— CELL  OF  MADREPORE. 


Many  of  these  stony  masses  form  branching  clusters  of  exceeding  elegance, 
nor  is  our  admiration  at  all  abated  when  we  institute  a  closer  examination  of 
their  structure.  Take  any  one  of  all  the  million  cells  which  crowd  its  surface  : 
each  tiny  orifice  in  which  each  individual  Polype  of  the  countless  host  resides 
is,  in  itself,  a  microscopic  gem,  matchless  for  the  regularity  and  beauty  of  its 
arrangement,  and  the  mathematical  precision  with  which  it  is  built  (Fig.  35). 
During  the  life  of  the  Madrepore,  every  one  of  these  minute  cells  gave  issue 
or  concealment  to  a  radiant  Polype,  which,  like  a  living  flower,  protruded  its 
eight  arms  in  search  of  food. 

In  the  hot  climates  where  these  stone-making  corals  abound,  they  frequent 
shallow  bays  and  sheltered  spots,  where  they  can  enjoy  the  full  influences  of 
light  and  are  unexposed  to  the  agitation  of  the  ocean  :  in  such  situations  the 
submarine  rocks  become  gradually  encrusted  with  their  calcareous  skeletons, 


CORALS.  41 


and  if  left  undisturbed,  in  the  lapse  of  years  successive  generations  deposit 
such  large  quantities  of  calcareous  matter  as  to  form  beds  of  considerable 
thickness.  , 

In  the  formation  of  their  massive  skeletons,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
/ife  and  death  constantly  keep  pace  with  each  other.  The  living  mass,  whilst 
growing  at  the  top,  is  with  concurrent  progress  perishing  beneath,  leaving  the 
imperishable  stone  a  still  accumulating  mound.  With  such  a  mode  of  increase, 
there  is  no  necessary  limit  to  the  growth  of  these  Zoophytes.  The  rising  mass 
may  expand  upwards,  until  it  nears  the  surface  of  the  sea,  when  death  ensues 
simply  from  exposure,  and  not  from  any  failure  in  its  powers  of  life ;  still 
growing,  round  the  margin  of  the  rock  itself  has  formed,  it  spreads  on  every 
side.  Old  ocean  raves  to  see  a  whole  domain  thus  rescued  from  his  grasp, 
and  piles  upon  the  nascent  island  mud  and  weeds,  which  soon  produce  a 
vegetable  soil ;  seeds  brought  by  birds,  and  cocoa-palms,  take  root  upon  the 
new-born  surface,  soon  thick  groves  appear,  inviting  human  occupation,  and 
man  comes  at  last  to  take  possession  of  a  territory  reared  by  the  unaided 
efforts  of  these  humble  creatures. 

Could  we  raise  one  of  these  islands  from  the  sea,  we  should  find  the  coral 
reefs  surrounding  it  like  magnificent  piles  of  artificial  masonry  resembling 
ramparts,  perhaps  a  hundred  miles  or  more  in  circuit. 

Mr.  Darwin  has  estimated  the  reefs  of  the  Gambier  group  at 
their  outer  limits  to  be  two  thousand  feet  in  thickness.  Some  of 
the  coral-beds  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  have  a  length  of  twelve  hundred 
and  a  breadth  of  three  hundred  and  fifty  or  four  hundred  miles, 
while  another  on  the  Australian  coast  is  at  least  twelve  hundred 
miles  long.  Thus,  therefore,  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea  we  find 
materials  plentiful  enough  wherewith  to  build,  not  islands  only, 
but  whole  continents,  which  only  want  upheaving  to  the  surface 
to  become  the  abode  of  man ;  and  there  is  an  agency  at  hand 
whereby  they  can  be  raised.  He  who  has  climbed  Vesuvius,  or 
scaled  the  lofty  sides  of  thundering  Etna,  has  had  proof  enough 
that  there  is  fire  beneath  the  ground  he  treads  upon ,  and  that 
this  fire  is  widely  spread,  a  single  glance  at  any  map  will  testify. 
Through  Europe,  Asia,  and  the  mighty  chain, 

"  Where  Andes,  giant  of  the  western  star, 
With  meteor  standard  to  the  winds  unfurled, 
Looks  from  his  throne  of  clouds  o'er  half  the  world," 

each  mountain  tells  us  of  volcanic  power  imprisoned  deep  beneath 
its  basis.  Suppose,  for  a  moment,  that  through  some  wide  rent 
the  ocean  found  its  way  into  this  fiery  gulf,  and  the  imprisoned 
stream,  produced  by  such  a  dread  catastrophe,  putting  its  Titan 
shoulders  to  the  roof,  heaved  up  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  with  all 
its  coral  load  ;  mountains  huge  would  raise 

"  Their  broad,  bare  backs  into  the  sky," 


42 


CORALS. 


from  which  new  rivers  would  descend  to  fertilize  another  region 
of  the  globe. 

The  Corals  (Corattium}*  properly  so-called  (Fig.  36),  have  their  central 
axis,  which  supports  the  external  living  flesh,  solid,  without  cells  for  the 
lodgment  of  the  Polypes,  and  variously  branched.  As  a  well-known  example 
of  this  tribe  of  Zoophytes,  we  may  select  for  description  the  common  red  coral 
(Corallium  rubruui),  a  branch  of  which  is  represented  in  our  figure.  The 


36.— RED  CORAL. 


FIG.  37.— Isis. 


red  coral  is  principally  obtained  from  the  Mediterranean :  when  growing  at 
the  bottom  of  the  sea,  it  consists  of  short  branched  stems  encrusted  with  the 
living  flesh,  whereby  the  central  axis  is  produced,  and  which  at  intervals  is 
studded  with  the  flower-like  mouths  that  give  it  nourishment.  The  central 
stem  or  "  polypary,"  as  the  stony  axis  is  called,  is  of  extreme  hardness,  and 
susceptible  of  a  high  polish,  to  which  circumstance,  together  with  its  brilliant 
crimson  hue,  the  estimation  in  which  it  is  held  is  principally  owing.  The 
fishery  for  coral  is  carried  on  in  boats.  Each  boat  contains  at  least  three 
men,  who  are  provided  with  a  massive  wooden  cross,  to  whose  equal  arms  are 
attached  strong  hempen  nets.  A  large  stone  placed  upon  the  centre  of  the 
apparatus  sinks  it  to  the  bottom,  frequently  to  the  depth  of  two  hundred  or 
three  hundred  feet.  While  one  of  the  fishermen  is  employed  in  alternately 
raising  and  letting  fall  the  machine,  bumping  the  ground  to  break  the  coral 
stems,  the  others  row  the  boat,  so  as  to  sweep  over  a  certain  space.  After  a 
time  the  whole  is  drawn  up,  and  the  fragments  of  coral  which  have  been 
retained  by  the  meshes  of  the  net  are  carefully  removed. 

*  Corallum,  coral. 


GORGONI&.  43 


The  Mare's-tail  Coral  (7sis*  Lfippuns}.  The  short  and  stunted  trunks  of  the 
red  coral,  which  in  their  shape  resemble  little  oaks,  although  composed  of  brittle  sub- 
stances, are  strong  enough  to  resist  the  violence  of  the  tempest ;  but  in  the  taller  and 
more  slender  forms,  such  brittleness  would  render  them  quite  unfit  to  occupy  the 
situations  in  which  they  grow,  and  they  would  be  continually  liable  to  be  broken  by 
the  agitation  of  the  sea,  if,  by  a  beautiful  modification  in  the  construction  of  their 
central  stem,  they  had  not  been  adapted  to  the  circumstances  of  their  position.  In  the 
his  Hipptiris,  therefore  (Fig.  37),  the  central  axis  is  constructed  with  alternate  joints 
of  stony  and  of  horny  substance ;  so  that,  being  thus  made  flexible,  they  bend  before 
the  passing  waves,  and  thus  remain  secure  from  otherwise  inevitable  destruction. 

The  Bark-bearing  Corals  (Gorgom<?}\  in  their  length  and  slender  form 
resemble  osiers,  or,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Gor^onia  flabellum  (Fig.  38,  i),  are 
spread  out  into  large  flat  expansions  that  are  called  sea-fans.  These  Zoophytes 
have  their  framework  entirely  composed  of  horny  substance,  which  is  black, 
and  coated  with  flesh  of  a  bright  yellow  colour,  or  sometimes  purple.  From 
the  ramifications  being  very  numerous  and  uniting  with  each  other  at  short 
intervals,  this  species  is  a  very  beautiful  one,  and  when  bespangled  with  its 
living  flowers,  presents  a  charming  spectacle. 

The  Sea-Pens  (Pennatulce}\  (Fig.  38,2)  constitute  a  very  remarkable 
family,  specimens  of  which  are  frequently  brought  up  in  the  nets  of  fishermen 
upon  our  own  coasts.  The  species  represented  in  our  engraving  (Pennatula 


Fie.  38.— i.  SEA-FAX.     2.  SEA-PEN. 

phosphored)  very  closely  resembles  a  broad  feather  from  two  to  four  inches  in 
length,  and  of  a  purplish  colour;  the  lower  part,  which  represents  the  barrel  of 
the  quill,  is  tipped  with  orange.  Above  this  the  stem  is  fringed  on  each  side 
with  flat  appendages  that  represent  the  plume,  along  the  upper  edge  of  which 

*  Isis,  a  goddess ;  ITTTTOS,  hippos,  a  horse;  ovpb  oura,  a  tail  (Mare's-tail,  a  plant), 
f  Gorgon,  a  mythological  name.  J  Pennatula,  a  little  feather. 


44  CORALS. 


are  placed  the  cells  wherein  the  Polypes  lodge.  Some  authors  have  affirmed 
that  the  sea-pen  swims  freely  in  the  sea;  but  modern  observation  tends  to 
throw  discredit  on  this  statement.  It  is  usually  found  with  its  stem  inserted 
into  the  mud  at  the  bottom,  and  those  that  have  been  kept  for  inspection 
have  never  exhibited  any  capability  of  locomotion.  Some  species,  when  dis- 
turbed, become  highly  luminous,  insomuch  that  the  statement  £>f  Linnaeus, 
that  the  "  phosphorescent  sea-pens  cover  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  and  there 
cast  so  strong  a  light  that  it  is  easy  to  count  the  fishes  and  worms  sporting 
among  them,"  is  by  no  means  devoid  of  foundation. 

Hitherto  we  have  seen  the  solid  part  either  stony  or  horny, 

called  the  skeleton  or  polypidom, 
deposited  within  the  living  flesh, 
but  there  are  some  species  of 
Anthozoa  in  which  it  forms  a 
protecting  sheath  to  the  bodies 
of  the  Polypes  which  are  lodged 
in  its  interior.  The  elegant  ag- 
gregation of  tubes  called 
The  Organ-pipe  Coral  (Tubipora* 

Musica)  is  an  example  of  such  a  structure 
(Fig.  39).  It  consists  of  small  cylindrical 
tubes  of  a  rich  crimson  hue,  placed  nearly 
parallel,  but  at  a  short  distance  apart,  and 
united,  at  regular  distances  by  successive 
stages  of  horizontal  plates,  that  divide  the 
FIG.  39.— ORGAN-PIPE  CORAL.  series  into  ranges,  or  storeys,  like  the  diffe- 

rent floors  of  a  house  supported  by  many 

pillars.  From  the  mouth  of  each  tube,  in  the  living  state,  protrude  the  eight  tentacles 
of  a  starry  Polype  of  a  brilliant  green  colour,  forming  a  striking  contrast  with  the  crim- 
son polypidom. 

ActiniaB.f — In  the  succeeding  group  of  Polypes,  while  the  general  form 
and  structure  of  the  Anthozoa  are  preserved,  we  find  an  organization  much 
more  complex  than  we  have  yet  encountered.  In  the  Actiniae  the  tentacles  are 
very  numerous,  and  ranged  in  several  circles  round  the  mouth.  When  ex- 
panded, being  often  of  gay  colours,  they  so  much  resemble  composite  flowers, 
such  as  the  daisy,  the  marigold,  and  others,  as  to  have  obtained  their  names 
for  different  species,  and  the  term  u  animal  flowers  "  for  the  entire  group. 
When  expanded  and  viewed  in  profile,  the  form  of  an  Actinia  is  that  of  a 
short,  broad  cylinder,  with  the  tentacles  radiating  from  the  upper  margin 
(Fig.  40),  the  base  being  somewhat  dilated.  But  when  the  absence  of  light 
or  water,  or  any  other  cause,  induces  them  to  repose,  the  tentacles  contract, 
and  the  upper  part  of  the  body,  by  a  partial  inversion,  closes  over  them,  leaving 
no  trace  of  the  place  where  they  disappeared,  except  a  wrinkled  depression  in 
the  centre.  In  this  condition  their  shape  is,  more  or  less,  that  of  a  bell,  as 
may  be  seen  in  the  figure  (Fig.  40). 

When  still  more  firmly  closed,  the  creature  looks  like  nothing  but  a  rounded 
lump  of  fleshy  substance,  plastered  on  the  rock  (Fig.  41,  ») ;  but  as  the  animal 

*  Tubus,  a  tube ;  porus,  a  pore.  f  d/cri?,  aktin,  a  ray. 


ACTINIA.  45 


again  expands,  the  central  opening  at  the  top  gradually  widens,  the  margin 
slowly  rolls  back,  and  the  tentacles  it  concealed  begin  to  show  their  tips.  As 
the  expansion  goes  on,  the  tentacles  continue  to  enlarge,  and  the  margin  to 
spread  outwards,  until,  finally,  the  disk  with  the  mouth  in  the  centre  is  fully 
displayed,  and  the  tentacles,'like  petals,  fringe  it  round. 


FIG  40. — ACTINIA. 

In  the  species  delineated  in  the  next  figure,  Actinia  gemmacea,  there  is  an  instinct 
displayed  of  a  very  admirable  character.  Such  individuals  as  have  taken  up  their  resi- 
dence on  the  half-submerged  rocks,  where  the  daily  recess  of  the  tide  exposes  them  to 
observation,  are  covered  with  rough  warts,  and  blotched  with  dusky  brown  and  dull 
orange  ;  and  still  further  to  insure  their  concealment,  cover  themselves  with  fragments 
of  shells,  sea-weed,  and  gravel,  which  adhere  to  their  skin  so  strongly  as  not  to  be 
washed  off ;  and  being  thus  veiled,  the  animals  are  quite  concealed  from  observation. 
On  the  other  hand,  those  species  which  inhabit  deep  water,  as  if  aware  that  the  neces- 
sity for  concealment  no  longer  existed,  use  no  such  precaution :  their  skins  are  smooth 
and  naked,  and  adorned  with  the  vivid- tints  which  make  the  species  so  beautiful.  These 
Actinias  are  easily  procured,  and  may  be  kept  alive  in  sea-water  for  a  long  time  without 
difficulty :  in  a  glass  vessel  their  beauty  is  displayed  to  advantage.  They  are  capable 
of  very  long  fasts,  although  sufficiently  voracious  when  food  is  to  be  obtained. 

Although  the  Actiniae  are  usually  affixed  to  the  rocks  by  their 
broadly-expanded  bases,  many  of  them  can  detach  themselves, 
and  float  through  the  water  to  a  new  resting-place  ;  or  they  will 
slide  along  slowly  over  the  ground,  by  the  action  of  their  base  or 
foot,  and  some  are  said  to  turn  themselves  over  and  walk  upon 
the  extremities  of  their  tentacles.  There  is,  indeed,  a  small  group 
of  Actiniae  (Actineta)  fitted  expressly  for  an  ocean  life,  by  means 
of  an  air-cavity  in  the  base,  containing  a  vesicular  or  spongy  disk 
made  up  of  air-cells,  which  serves  as  a  float  Thus  provided,  the 
animal  lies  on  the  water  with  its  base  uppermost  and  its  mouth 
and  tentacles  below  the  surface,  and  in  this  position  it  is  carried 
about  by  winds  and  currents. 

The  tentacles  of  the  Actiniae  are  not  always  simple  tubes :  in 
the  A.  alcyonoides,  represented  on  the  left  hand  of  our  engraving 


CORALS. 


(Fig.  41,  i),  they  are  of  a  very  complex  character,  and  are  pro- 
vided near  their  tips  and  at  their  sides  with  minute  suckers,  with 
which  they  are  enabled  to  grasp  their  prey. 


FIG.  41. — ANIMAL  FLOWERS,     i.  Actinia  alcyonoides ;  2.  A.  gctmnacca. 

In  common  with  the  Hydrozoa,  the  Actiniae  are  furnished  with 
an  armature  of  oblong,  transparent  vesicles,  which  have  the  power 
of  shooting  out  a  long  thread-like  lasso  of  excessive  tenuity. 
These  abound  on  the  tentacles ;  but  there  are  also  certain  special 
organs  upon  which  they  are  crowded  to  an  extraordinary  degree, 
and  which  seem  to  be  simply  magazines  of  these  weapons.  Certain 
species  of  Actiniae  have  the  faculty  of  emitting,  from  small  orifices 
scattered  over  the  surface  of  the  body,  slender  white  filaments  in 
great  profusion,  coiled  up  so  as  to  resemble  tangles  of  sewing- 
cotton.  The  slightest  touch  is  sometimes  sufficient  to  make  these 
filaments  shoot  forth  from  various  points  with  great  force  and 
rapidity.  They  have  a  strongly  adhesive  power,  which  is  de- 
pendent upon  a  very  wonderful  mechanism.  On  being  examined 
with  a  microscope,  the  entire  surface  of  the  tentacula  and  the 
cotton-like  threads  are  seen  to  be  densely  crowded  with  transpa- 
rent oval  vesicles,  in  each  of  which  is  coiled  up  a  delicate  filament, 
often  thirty  or  forty  times  longer  than  the  capsule  which  contains 
it,  and  moreover  this  lasso-thread  is  variously  armed  with  sharp 


ACTINIAE.  47 


barbed  spines  of  inconceivable  minuteness,  but  formidably  effective 
for  their  purpose.  On  the  slightest  irritation,  the  spiral  thread 
bursts  forth  and  entwines  the  victim  in  its  spiny  folds,  which  seem 
to  be  armed  with  some  potent  venom,  as  a  small  animal  once 
seized  by  them  dies,  even  should  it  escape  from  their  tenacious 
grasp. 

The  Actinia;,  like  the  Hydrae,  seem  to  defy  the  effects  of  mutilation :  they  may  be 
cut  in  two  perpendicularly  or  across,  and  each  cutting  will  soon  furnish  forth  the  want- 
ing parts,  and  present  itself  in  all  respects  well  and  hearty. — MR.  GOSSE. 

In  some  species,  when  a  large  individual  has  been  a  good  while 
adherent  to  one  spot,  and  at  length  chooses  to  change  its  quarters, 
it  does  so  by  causing  its  base  to  move  slowly  along  the  surface  on 
which  it  rests.  But  it  frequently  happens  that  small  irregular 
fragments  of  the  edge  of  the  base  are  left  behind,  as  if  their  ad- 
hesion had  been  so  strong  that  the  animal  found  it  easier  to  tear 
its  own  tissues  apart  than  to  overcome  it.  The  fragments  so  left 
soon  contract,  become  smooth,  and  spherical  or  oval  in  outline , 
and  in  the  course  of  a  week  or  a  fortnight,  may  be  seen  each  fur- 
nished with  a  margin  of  tentacles,  and  a  disk — transformed,  in 
fact,  into  perfect  though  small  Actiniae.  Occasionally  a  separated 
piece,  more  irregularly  jagged  than  usual,  will,  in  contracting, 
form  two  smaller  fragments,  each  of  which  becomes  a  separate 
animal.  Dr.  T.  Strethill  Wright  cut  off  a  minute  piece  of  the  base 
of  a  sea-anemone;  the  part  immediately  receded  from  the  parent, 
and  in  three  weeks  became  a  perfect  Actinia ;  he  then  cut  pieces 
from  these  with  the  same  result,  and  ultimately  get  fourteen  from 
the  original  one. 

The  ordinary  mode  of  reproduction  in  these  Zoophytes  is  by 
minute  germs  or  ova,  which  are  to  be  found  suspended  in  dense 
clusters  in  the  interior  of  the  animal :  these  escape  into  the 
creature's  stomach,  and  are  discharged  into  the  sea  through  the 
mouth.  Some  of  the  Actiniae  are  exceedingly  prolific,  producing 
from  a  hundred  and  fifty  to  three  hundred  young  in  a  single  day. 
The  characteristic  form  and  markings  of  the  parent  are  distinctly 
recognizable  in  the  newly-born  progeny,  the  principal  distinction, 
besides  the  difference  of  size,  being  the  fewness  of  the  tentacles, 
which  at  first  are  only  about  twelve  in  number. 

The  Mushroom  Corals  (Fitngia)*  are  so  called  on  account  of  a  striking 
resemblance  between  the  arrangement  of  the  stony  laminse  upon  the  upper 
surface  of  their  framework  and  the  gills  of  a  mushroom  (Fig.  42).  This, 

*  Fungus,  a  mushroom. 


ECHINODERMS. 


FIG.  42.— FUNGIA. 


however,  is  but  the  skeleton,  and 
though  it  is  a  very  pretty  object, 
those  who  are  acquainted  with  it 
alone  can  form  from  it  but  a  very 
poor  idea  of  the  living  animal.  When 
removed  from  its  native  element,  the 
violence  at  first  causes  the  soft  living 
flesh  to  contract  so  forcibly  that 
scarcely  any  difference  is  perceptible 
between  it  and  the  dry  skeleton,  nor 
is  any  alteration  at  once  manifest  on 
putting  it  into  salt  water.  But  let  it 
recover  its  confidence,  its  equani- 
mity, then  a  pellucid  gelatinous  flesh 
will  be  seen  emerging  from  between 
the  plates,  from  which  arise  exqui- 
sitely-formed and  coloured  tentacles, 
fringing  the  surface,  across  which 
stretches  the  mouth,  resembling  a 
slit  with  white  plaited  lips,  like  the 
orifice  of  a  cowrie-shell. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
ECHINODERMS.    ECHINODERMATA.* 

IT  is  beautiful  to  observe  by  what  gentle  steps  the  student  of 
Nature  is  able  to  ascend  from  the  contemplation  of  one  form 
of  animal  life  to  another  more  elevated  in  the  scale  of  creation. 
We  have  learned,  in  the  preceding  chapter,  that  many  tribes  of 
the  Polypes  secrete  calcareous  matter  in  large  quantities,  and 
thus  construct  for  themselves  a  solid  framework,  which  sustains 
the  living  mass.  Let  us  for  a  moment  suppose  a  Polype  sup- 
ported upon  a  long  stem,  capable  of  strengthening  its  pedicle,  its 
body,  the  tentacula  around  its  mouth,  and  all  the  appendages 
belonging  to  the  animal,  with  solid  pieces  of  definite  form,  such 
pieces,  being  connected  together  by  the  soft  parts  and  surrounded 
on  all  sides  with  living  flesh,  would  thus  form  an  internal  skeleton, 
giving  strength  and  support  to  the  entire  fabric,  and  at  the  same 
time  allowing  it  to  bend  in  every  direction.  A  Polype  so  consti- 
tuted would,  when  dried,  present  an  appearance  resembling  that 
depicted  in  the  annexed  figure  (Fig.  44,7).  The  creature  repre- 
sented, however,  is  not  a  Polype,  but  an 


*  ex^os,  echinos,  a  hedgehog  ; 


,  derma,  skin. 


ENCRINITES. 


49 


Encrinite,*  one  of  the  lowest  of  the  class  of  Star-fishes.  In  its 
habits  of  life  an  Encrinite,  thus  constructed,  closely  resembles  the 
more  highly-organized  Anthozoa.  Fixed  by  its  jointed  stem 
upon  the  surface  of  the  rock,  it  curves  ,, :  ^,,  , 

its  pedicle  from  side  to  side  in  search 
of  food,  which  with  its  flower-like  arms 
it  seizes  and  conveys  into  its  mouth. 
These  Encrinites  are,  in  modern  times, 
the  scarcest  productions  of  the  ocean. 
A  species  similar  to  that  in  our  en- 
graving exists  in  the  West  Indian  seas; 
and  not  many  years  ago,  the  interest- 
ing discovery  was  made  of  another 
species  upon  our  own  coasts  ;  this, 
however,  is  of  very  small  size,  not  ex- 
ceeding three-quarters  of  an  inch  in 
length  :  with  these  rare  exceptions,  the 
race  of  Encrinites  appears  to  be  extinct. 
Yet  the  time  has  been  when  the  bottom 
of  the  sea  must  have  been  as  thickly 
covered  with  creatures  of  this  descrip- 
tion as  a  corn-field  is  with  corn.  Many 
large  kinds  are  found  in  a  fossil  state  * 
in  our  chalk  and  limestone  rocks,  and 
vast  strata  of  marble,  extending  over 
large  tracts  of  country  in  Northern 
Europe  and  in  North  America,  are  en- 
tirely made  up  of  their  petrified  skele- 
tons. 

"Man  applies  it  to  construct  his  palace  and  adorn 
his  sepulchre  ;  but  there  are  few  who  know,  and 
fewer  still  who  appreciate,  the  surprising  fact  that 
much  of  this  marble  is  composed  of  millions  of  the 
skeletons  of  organized  beings,  once  endowed  with 
life,  and  susceptible  of  enjoyment,  which  after  per- 
forming the  part  that  was  for  a  while  assigned  to 
them  in  living  Nature,  have  contributed  their  re- 
mains towards  the  composition  of  the  mountain 
masses  of  the  earth." — DR.  BUCKLAND. 

The  numerous  pieces  of  which  their  stems  were  formed  are  met 
with  in  abundance  in  the  north  of  England,  where  they  are 
popularly  known  as  St.  Cuthbert's  beads,  while -their  Polype-like 


FIG.  43.— FOSSIL. 


FIG.  43,  a. 
LILY  STONES. 


*  'ev,  en,  in  ;  Kplvov,  krinon,  a  lily. 


5° 


ECHINODERMS. 


heads  have  been  regarded  as  petrified  flowers,  and  designated 
"  Lily  Stones  "  (Fig.  43,  a).  The  origin  of  these  beautiful  fossils, 
formerly  so  mysterious,  is  thus  easily  explained. 

The  Feather-star  (Comatula)*  (Fig.  44,  e),  common  upon  our  coast,  is 
but  an  Encrinite  without  a  stem,  and  thus  enabled  to  move  freely  at  the 
bottom  of  the  sea.  The  central  box  which  contains  the  stomach  is  furnished 
with  a  mouth,  around  which  radiate  the  arms,  fringed  with  a  double  row  of 
jointed  filaments ;  by  means  of  these  the  feather-star  can  creep  upon  the  sand, 
or  twining  them  around  the  stems  of  sea- weeds  or  corals,  it  can  climb  in  search 
of  food,  or  by  the  undulations  of  its  feathery  filaments,  row  itself  from  place 
to  place  through  the  water,  with  a  graceful  gliding  motion. 


FlG.  44.— ECHINODERMATA. 


The  Sea-baskets  (Gorgonocephalus}\  (Fig.  44, 5).  In  these  elaborately 
constructed  creatures,  the  shell  of  the  living  animal  is  entirely  covered  with  a 
thick  fleshy  crust.  From  the  circumference  of  the  disk  proceed  fiv.e  strong 
rays,  which,  subdividing  again  and  again,  always  by  binary  division,  soon 
become  multiplied  into  living  ropes,  spread  out  all  around  the  body;  and 
being  made  up  of  an  immense  number  of  jointed  pieces,  they  are  as  flexible 
as  whip-cord,  and  as  manageable  as  the  legs  of  a  spider.  Each  of  these 
innumerable  cords  is,  in  the  living  animal,  terminated  by  a  minute  yellowish 
fleshy  ball,  something  resembling  a  little  foot,  so  that  the  whole  creature,  as 
it  walks  along,  appears  like  a  conglomeration  of  serpents,  strangely  linked 
together,  whence  it  has  not  inappropriately  received  its  mythological  name  of 
Gorgonocephalus,  or  Medusa's  Head.  These  star-fishes  inhabit  the  deep  parts 

*  Comatus,  having  hair,     f  Topyuv ,  Gorgon,  Medusa;  /ce0a\??,  kephale,  the  head. 


STAR-FISHES. 


of  the  sea,  and  seem  particularly  to  frequent  coral-beds  and  localities  where 
marine  plants  are  abundant,  around  which  they  wind  their  arms,  and  thus 
crawl  about  in  search  of  sustenance. .  The  intertwined  assemblage  of  their 
living  tendrils  forms  a  sort  of  net,  in  which  small  animals  are  entangled  and 
dragged  towards  the  mouth.  "  This  elaborate  piece  of  Nature/'  says  its  first 
describer,  "  has  its  body  resembling  an  Echinus,  or  Egg-fish,  the  main  branches? 
a  star,  and  the  dividing  of  the  branches,  the  plant  misteltoe.  It  spreads  itseK 
from  a  pentagonal  root  into  five  main  limbs  or  branches,  each  of  which,  just 
at  the  issuing  out  from  the  body,  divides  itself  into  two,  and  each  of  the  ten 
branches  thus  formed,  does  again  divide  into  two  parts,  making  twenty  lesser 
branches,  and  each  of  these  doth  again  divide,  making  in  all  forty.  These 
again  divide  into  eighty,  and  these  into  160,  and  they  again  into  320.  The 
division  is  again  repeated,  making  640,  afterwards  1,280,  5,120,  10,240,  20,480, 
40,960,  and  at  the  fourteenth  division,  beyond  which  the  further  expansion 
could  not  be  distinctly  traced,  there  were  81,920  small  tendrils  or  threads,  in 
which  the  branches  of  this  star-fish  terminate/'' 


\Vc  next  arrive  at  a  group  called 


FIG.  45.— BRITTLE-STAR. 


FIG.  46.— SUN-STAR  (SOLASTER  FAPPOSA). 


Snake-tailed  Star-fishes  (Ophinrida}*  one  of  which  is  represented  at 
Fig.  44, 4.  The  rays  are  no  longer  divided  into  branches,  but  are,  nevertheless, 
curiously  constructed,  and  being  twisted  about  with  great  activity  when  the 
creature  is  disturbed,  look  not  a  little  like  the  tails  of  serpents — whence  the 
name  given  to  this  family. 

A  very  interesting  circumstance  in  the  economy  of  these  animals  is  their 
extreme  brittleness,  whence  they  have  merited  the  name  of  "  Brittle-stars:1 
On  the  least  alarm  or  excitement,  the  creature  throws  off  one  or  perhaps  all 
its  rays,  and  breaks  them  into  fragments.  This  faculty  renders  the  preservation 
of  a  perfect  specimen  very  difficult. 


*  i(}>is,  ophis,  a  snake;  ovpa,  oura,  the  tail. 


52  ECHINODERMS. 


These  Snake-tails  live  almost  exclusively  on  sandy  shores,  and  hide  them- 
selves in  the  sand  or  mud  at  the  slightest  appearance  of  danger.  In  our  own 
seas  they  are  very  abundant,  and  are  amongst  the  most  curious  and  beautiful 
game  sought  after  by  the  dredger. 

Some  species  are  always  found  firmly  grasping  the  stems  of  Gorgonise, 
amongst  which  they  seem  to  live  like  spiders,  catching  any  passing  animals 
by  means  of  their  long  flexible  arms. 

The  Star-fishes  (Asterias)*  (Fig.  44, 3). 

In  these  well-known  animals  it  is  evident  that  the  power  of  locomotion,  so 
far  as  depends  upon  the  flexibility  of  the  rays,  must  be  entirely  lost ;  it  there- 
fore becomes  an  interesting  question  how  progression  is  now  to  be  effected 
under  such  altered  circumstances.  On  placing  a  living  star-fish  in  some 
transparent  pool  left  by  the  tide,  and  watching  it  there,  the  most  incurious 
observer  will  find  himself  compelled  to  gaze  in  mute  astonishment  at  what  he 
sees.  From  the  inferior  surface  of  each  ray,  the  creature,  which  before 
appeared  so  helpless  and  inanimate,  slowly  protrudes  numbers  of  fleshy  tubes, 
which  move  about  in  search  of  a  firm  holding-place,  and  soon  are  fixed,  by 
means  of  little  suckers  at  the  end  of  each,  to  the  smooth  surface  of  a  neigh- 
bouring stone,  or,  if  the  star-fish  has  been  placed  in  a  glass  vessel  filled  with 
sea-water,  to  the  inner  surface  of  the  glass,  where  every  movement  may  be 
plainly  seen.  When  these  have  laid  fast  hold,  others  appear  in  quick  suc- 
cession, and  likewise  are  attached  to  the  smooth  surface,  till  at  last  hundreds 
of  little  legs,  for  such  these  suckers  seem,  are  actively  employed,  and  by  their 
aid  the  creature  glides  along  with  such  a  gentle  motion  that  it  seems  to  swim 
rather  than  crawl. 

But  it  is  not  merely  as  agents  of  locomotion  that  the  suckers  are  used,  for 
helpless  as  these  creatures  seem  to  be,  they  are  in  reality  among  the  most 
voracious  inhabitants  of  the  deep.  When  seizing  its  food,  the  rays  of  the  star- 
fish are  bent  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  cup,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  the  opening 
of  the  mouth.  The  cup  thus  formed  will,  to  a  certain  extent,  lay  hold  of  a 
passing  victim,  but  without  other  means  of  securing  it,  the  grasp  would  scarcely 
be  formidable  to  animals  possessed  of  any  strength ;  armed,  however,  as  the 
rays  have  been  seen  to  be  with  hundreds  of  tenacious  suckers,  escape  from 
such  a  grasp  is  hopeless,  for  prey  once  seized  is  secured  by  every  part  of  its 
surface,  and,  in  spite  of  its  utmost  efforts,  is  speedily  dragged  towards  the 
mouth  of  the  star-fish,  and  engulfed  in  its  capacious  maw.  Small  crabs  and 
small  shell-fish  are  swallowed  entire,  for  the  stomach  is  amazingly  dilatable ; 
but  shell-fish  of  large  size  are  not  the  less  the  victims  of  the  creature's  voracity, 
although  it  cannot  swallow  them  whole.  The  destruction  which  it  commits 
among  oysters  was  well  known  to  the  ancients,  who  believed  that  it  obtained 
its  supper  by  inserting  one  of  its  rays,  after  the  manner  of  an  oyster-knife, 
between  the  shells  when  the  oyster  happened  to  lie  with  them  partially  open, 
and  that  it  then  gradually  forced  itself  in  till  the  prey  came  in  contact  with 
its  mouth.  This  procedure,  although  sufficiently  ingenious,  is  not  the  mode 
pursued,  at  least  by  our  modern  star-fish,  which  has  the  singular  faculty  of 
turning  its  stomach  inside  out  and  pouring  from  it  a  poisonous  secretion,  which 
behig  introduced  between  the  shells  of  the  oyster,  deprives  it  of  all  power  of 
closing  its  valves.  The  protruded  stomach  of  the  star-fish  is  then  thrust  in, 
and  enveloping  the  poor  oyster  in  its  folds,  literally  eats  it  out  of  house  and 
home.  These  animals  abound  on  every  coast,  frequenting  quiet  bays,  where 

*  dorr/p,  aster,  a  star. 


SEA-URCHINS. 


they  are  of  important  use.  Their  appetite  and  instinct  lead  them  to  devour 
whatever  dead  or  tainted  substance  they  may  happen  to  encounter,  and  thus 
by  their  multitudes  they  prevent  our  shores  from  being  encumbered  by  the 
offal  that  would  otherwise  accumulate  on  every  beach.  They  are,  moreover, 
highly  prolific,  pouring  forth  at  certain  seasons  their  innumerable  eggs  into 
the  surrounding  water,  and  thus  materially  contributing  to  the  supply  of  food 
provided  for  the  multitudinous  inhabitants  of  the  sea. 

In  the  Cake-Urchins  (Scutelld}*  (Fig.  44, 2),  the  rays  are  obliterated,  and 
the  circumference  acquires  a  circular  form;  moreover,  their  body  is  encased 
completely  in  a  hard  calcareous  shell,  composed  of  numerous  angular  pieces, 
accurately  fitted  together  and  incapable  of  movement.  The  cake-urchins 
bury  themselves  in  the  sand,  a  situation  in  which  suckers  would  be  of  little 
use,  but  for  which  they  are  admirably  adapted  by  a  contrivance  not  less  cal- 
culated to  excite  the  admiration  of  the  observer. 

The  exterior  of  the  Scutella  is  entirely  covered  with  minute  appendages, 
resembling,  when  seen  with  the  naked  eye,  delicate  hairs;  but,  when  examined 
with  the  microscope,  they  are  found  to  be  spines  of  most  elaborate  structure, 
all  of  which  are  moveably  attached  to  the  shell  by  ball-and-socket  joints,  and 
thus  rendered  susceptible  of  being  moved  in  every  direction,  so  that  by  their 
combined  efforts  the  animal  can  speedily  bury  itself,  either  for  the  purpose  of 
procuring  food  or  of  eluding  observation. 

The  Sea-Eggs  or  Sea-Urchins  (Echinus)  f  (Fig.  44,  i)  in  their  form 
resemble  an  orange.  The  mouth  is  a  simple  orifice  in  the  shell,  placed  at  one 


FIG.  47. — GREEN-PEA  URCHIN. 


FIG.  48.— SUCKER  OF  URCHIN. 


extremity  of  its  axis,  and  through  it,  as  represented  in  the  figure,  the  points  of 
five  singular  teeth  project  externally.  The  instruments  of  locomotion  occupy 
the  entire  superficies  of  the  shell,  and  present  two  distinct  sets  of  organs 
adapted  to  different  uses.  The  first  consists  of  a  multitude  of  sharp  purple 
spines  (Fig.  47),  every  one  of  which  is  connected  by  a  ball-and-socket  j»int  to 
a  distinct  prominence  on  which  it  moves.  These  numerous  spines,  therefore, 
are  so  many  inflexible  legs,  upon  which  the  Echinus  rolls  itself  from  place  to 
place,  or  by  their  assistance  it  can  bury  itself  in  the  sand  with  the  greatest 
facility.  But  these  wonderfully  constructed  animals  are  by  no  means  confined 


Scutellum,  a  little  shield, 


echmos,  a  hedgehog. 


54 


ECHINODERMS. 


to  this  mode  of  progression,  for,  impossible  as  it  might  seem  from  their  out- 
ward appearance,  they  are  able  to  climb  rocks  in  search  of  food,  and  thus 
obtain  the  Corallines  and  substances  upon  which  they  principally  feed.  To 
enable  them  to  effect  this,  their  shell  is  perforated  with  ten  rows  of  small 
orifices,  extending  from  one  pole  to  the  other,  like  the  lines  of  longitude  upon 
a  globe,  through  which  long  suckers  issue  similar  in  structure  to  those  of  the 
star-fish,  but  long  enough  to  extend  beyond  the  points  of  the  spines  ;  so  that, 
by  their  assistance,  the  sea-urchin  not  only  scales  the  cliff,  but  creeps  along 
pendent  from  the  roofs  of  submarine  caverns. 

The  number  of  these  suckers  is  very  great :  in  a  moderate-sized  urchin 
Professor  Forbes  reckoned  sixty-two  rows  of  pores  in  each  of  the  ten  bands ; 
as  there  are  three  pairs  of  pores  in  each  row,  their  number  multiplied  by  six 
and  again  by  ten  would  give  three  thousand  seven 
hundred  and  twenty  pores;  but  as  each  sucker  occu- 
pies a  pair  of  pores,  the  number  of  suckers  would  be 
half  that  amount,  or  one  thousand  eight  hundred 
and  sixty.  Nor  is  the  structure  of  these  animals 
less  complicated  in  other  respects.  The  shell  is 
made  up  of  above  three  hundred  pieces  of  one  kind, 
and  nearly  as  many  of  another,  all  dovetailing  toge- 
ther with  the  greatest  order  and  regularity,  bear- 
ing on  their  surfaces  above  four  thousand  spines ; 
nay,  if  we  cut  any  individual  spine  into  slices  and 
examine  it  with  a  microscope,  it  will  be  seen  to  pre- 
sent a  pattern  peculiar  to  the  species,  and  far  beyond 
the  reach  of  art  in  its  elaborate  beauty  (Fig.  49). 
Truly  the  skill  of  the  Great  Architect  of  Nature  is 
not  less  displayed  in  the  construction  of  a  sea- 
urchin  than  in  the  creation  of  a  world ! 

The  eggs  (or  roe)  of  the  Echinus  are  looked  upon 
in  some  countries  as  affording  a  very  excellent  dish, 
FIG.  49.— SPINE  OF  ECHINUS,    and  we  find  that  among  the  Romans  they  were  ac- 
Segment  of  section.  counted  delicacies.    It  is  recorded  that  they  formed 

the  principal  dish  at  the  famous  supper  of  Lentulus, 

when  he  was  made  Flamen  Martialis,  or  Priest  of  Mars ;  and  sea-urchins  are 
still  caught  in  great  numbers  upon  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  for  the 
sake  of  their  roe. 

The  Sea-Cucumbers  (Holotkuria)*  (Fig.  50).  The  fisherman's  dredge 
occasionally  brings  up,  on  our  own  coasts,  slimy  creatures,  bearing  no  slight 
resemblance  to  a  disagreeable-looking  cucumber,  whence  they  are  commonly 
known  by  the  name  of  Sea- Gherkins  or  Sea-Cucumbers.  It  is  in  tropical  seas, 
however,  that  these  animals  most  abound,  where  they  lie  in  the  mud  or  the 
shallows,  or  crawl  over  the  coral  rocks.  The  surface  of  their  bodies  is  com- 
posed of  a  dense,  tough,  leathery  skin,  capable  of  being  dilated  or  contracted, 
lengthened  or  shortened,  at  the  will  of  the  animal.  No  stony  shell  is  deposited 
upon  their  bodies ;  nevertheless,  their  relationship  to  the  urchins  and  star- 
fishes is  manifestly  shown  by  their  apparatus  of  locomotive  suckers,  which 
are  of  precisely  the  same  structure  as  those  of  the  Echinus.  As  if,  however, 
also  to  manifest  an  affinity  with  the  Polype  forms,  there  still  exists  in  the  Ho- 
lothuria  a  circle  of  branched  tentacles,  which  surround  the  mouth.  These 

t  6\o66vpioj>,  holothourion,  a  name  applied  by  Aristotle. 


SIPHON-  WORMS. 


55 


FlG.  50.  — HOLOTHURI^E. 

are  capable  of  being  withdrawn  into  the  body,  but  are  commonly  protruded 
in' expectation  of  prey,  which  is  seized  and  dragged  to  the  mouth  by  thesi* 
appendages.  They  greatly  resemble  in  appearance  the  tentacles  of  some  of 
the  Actinia?,  especially  when  the  Holothuria  has  buried  its  whole  body  in  the 
mud  or  sand,  with  the  exception  of  these  branched  tentacles,  which  expand 
like  the  petals  of  a  flower.  A  species  named 

The  Cotton-Spinner  (Holothuria  «§r«),  sometimes  called  the  "Nigger,"  is 
very  common  in  deep  water  off  the  coast  of  Cornwall :  it  is  held  by  the  fishermen  in 
great  detestation,  on  account  of  its  slimy  appearance,  and  from  an  idea  that  where  the 
"Niggers"  are  numerous  and  get  into  the  crab-pots,  neither  crabs  nor  lobsters  are 
caught.  These  animals  are  frequently  near  a  foot  in  length,  and  thick  in  proportion. 
They  sometimes  draw  themselves  up  into  a  kind  of  ball,  and,  if  touched  or  disturbed, 
throw  out  a  bunch  of  white  taper  threads  of  great  tenacity,  that  stick  to  everything 
they  touch,  and  no  doubt  constitute  a  means  of  defence. 

The  Siphon- Worms  (Sipunculus}*  (Fig.  51)  have  a  lengthened  and 

slender  body,  and  all  the  aspect  of  worms, 
with  the  exception  of  the  circle  of  tentacles 
around  their  mouths,  by  which  they  indi- 
cate their  lingering  affinity  to  the  Echino- 
derms.  They  have  no  suckers  or  feet,  and 
many  species  are  marked  by  wrinkles  en- 
circling their  body,  causing  them  to  re- 
semble earth-worms  in  their  appearance 
as  well  as  in  their  habits.  Most  of  them 
bore  deep  holes  in  the  sand,  wherein  they 
lodge.  Others  conceal  themselves  in  the 
crevices  of  rocks;  and  there  is  one  species, 

FIG.  SI-HERMIT  SIPUHCULUS,          Sipunculus  Bernhardus,    represented  m 

our  engraving  (Fig.  51),  which  selects  the 
shell  of  some  periwinkle  or  whelk  for  its  abode. 


Sipunculus,  from  ffi(f>ov,  a  tube. 


PARASITIC    WORMS. 


:    CHAPTER  VIII. 
PARASITIC  WORMS.    ENTOZOA.* 

LAVISHLY  as  we  have  already  found  the  world  to  be  filled 
with  the  lower  forms  of  animated  beings,  our  astonishment 
will  be  by  no  means  lessened  when  we  learn  that  innumerable 
creatures  have  been  ordained  to  lead  a  parasitic  life,  and  to  pro- 
cure their  nourishment  from  the  superabundant  juices  of  other 
animals;  neither  is  this  race  of  parasites  by -any  means  deficient 
in  numerical  importance,  or  constructed  with  less  careful  adapta- 
tion to  the  situation  in  which  they  are  destined  to  reside.  They 
present,  however,  little  to  invite  our  attention,  and  the  details 
known  concerning  their  general  economy  are,  as  yet,  extremely 
few  and  unsat'sfactory 

One  of  the  most  common  is 

The  Hydatid  (Cysticercus),  which  not  unfrequently  infests  the  flesh  of  pigs, 

causing  that  diseased  condition  which 
is  known  as  measly  pork.  Its  body 
consists  of  a  globose  transparent  bag, 
with  a  slender  neck,  terminated  by  a 
remarkable  prehensile  apparatus — con- 
sisting of  a  double  row  of  recurved 
spines  and  four  adhesive  suckers  — 
represented  upon  an  enlarged  scale 
upon  the  right-hand  side  of  the  figure. 
These  simply-constructed  animals,  for- 
merly regarded  as  a  distinct  species, 
have  been  proved  by  recent  experi- 
ments to  be  but  an  incomplete  con- 
dition of 

The  Tape- Worm's  (Tenicc\  many 
species  of  which  are  met  with  in  the  aliment- 
ary canal  of  various  animals,  where  they 
have  been  known  to  attain  the  length  of 
sixty,  or  even  a  hundred  feet.  The  body  of 
the  tape-worm  consists  of  a  great  number 
of  segments,  sometimes  amounting  to  five 
hundred  or  more;  these  become  very  slender 
as  they  approach  the  so-called  head  (scolex], 
from  which  they  are  all  successively  produced. 

The  Flukes  (Distoma]  constitute  a  very  numerous  race,  of  which  the 
Liver  Fluke  (Distoma  hepaticum},  but  too  well  known  as  inhabiting  the  liver 
of  the  sheep,  will  serve  as  an  example.  It  resembles  in  shape  a  little  sole, 


FIG.  52.— CYSTICERCUS. 


*  eiros,  entos,  within  ;  faov,  zoon,  an  animal. 


TURBELLARIANS.  57 


about  an  inch  in  length,  furnished  with  two  suckers,  each  of  which  was  at  one 
time  supposed  to  be  a  mouth— whence  the  origin  of  their  name.  When  sheep 
are  pastured  in  low  wet  meadows,  this  animal  often  multiplies  in  them  ex- 
cessively, producing  dropsy  or  rot,  and  finally  causing  the  death  of  the  poor 
creatures  so  infested. 

The  Guinea-"Worm  (Filaria*  Medinensis}  is  a  most  troublesome  animal  in  hot 
climates,  where  it  takes  up  its  residence  under  the  skin  of  our  legs  and  feet,  and  some- 
times causes  very  serious  annoyance.  It  is  more  especially  met  with  on  the  Guinea 
coast  of  Africa,  and  thence  derives  its  name.  This  plague  of  the  human  race,  although 
not  thicker  than  a  knitting-needle,  sometimes  measures  upwards  of  a  yard  in  length  : 
how  it  gets  into  its  selected  abode  it  is  not  easy  to  conjecture  ;  but  when  once  located, 
it  seems  to  make  itself  quite  at  home,  causing  painful  tumours.  On  arriving  at  maturity 
it  comes  to  the  surface,  when  it  is  carefully  extracted  by  the  Arab  or  negro  doctors. 

We  have  in  this  country  a  worm  of  very  similar  structure,  called 

The  Hair-"Wonn  (Gordius)^,  common  in  summer-time  in  ponds  and  ditches,  so 
closely  resembling  in  its  appearance  a  hair  from  a  horse's  tail,  that  in  former  times  it 
was  the  popular  belief  that  they  were  really  living  horse-hairs.  Their  history  is  some- 
what curious.  They  pass  the  early  part  of  their  life  in  the  interior  of  some  insect — 
generally  a  water-beetle — where  they  grow  to  the  length  of  ten  or  eleven  inches.  When 
full  grown,  they  escape  from  the  body  of  the  poor  insect  in  which  they  have  been 
nourished,  and  seek  some  piece  of  water,  or  moist  situation,  where  they  deposit  their 
eggs  in  long  chains. 

TURBELLARIA,J 

Another  large  group  of  worms,  although  closely  allied  to  the 
Entozoa,  are  not  parasitic.  Their  body  is  flat,  soft,  and  often 
very  contractile  ;  but  their  chief  distinguishing  character  is  that 
they  are  entirely  covered  with  cilia,  by  the  movements  of  which 
they  glide  over  any  smooth  surface.  They  are  divisible  into  two 
families — the  Planarics  and  the  Nemertes — both  of  which  merit 
description. 

The  Planarias  (Planaria]  §  are  to  be  found  abundantly  in  almost  every 
pond,  where  they  have  very  much  the  appearance  of  little  slugs.  These 
animals  are  of  a  gelatinous  consistence,  and  enjoy  such  a  power  of  self-con- 
traction, that  they  can  reduce  their  whole  substance  to  the  form  of  a  speck  of 
jelly,  in  which  condition  they  occasionally  force  themselves  rather  disagree- 
ably upon  the  notice  of  incautious  water-cress  eaters.  The  Planariae  inhabit 
both  salt  and  fresh  water,  where  they  swim  about  rapidly,  by  an  undulating 
movement  of  their  body,  somewhat  after  the  manner  of  a  leech,  and  creep 
with  great  ease  upon  aquatic  plants.  They  are  generally  of  small  size,  but 
exceedingly  voracious.  Like  the  Polypes,  they  appear  capable  of  almost  end- 
less increase  by  division.  Sir  J.  Dalyell,  speaking  of  the  Black  Planaria 
(P.  nigra),  says,  "  It  is  privileged  to  multiply  its  species  in  proportion  to  the 
violence  offered.  It  may  almost  be  called  immortal  under  the  edge  of  the 
knife.  Innumerable  sections  of  the  body  all  become  complete  and  perfect 

*  Filum,  a  thread.  f  Gordius,  a  man  u'ho  tied  a  very  hard  knot. 

J  Turbella,  a  commotion^  because  the  action  of  their  cilia  makes  a  stir  ii^the  sur- 
rounding water  § 


r-3  LONG  SEA-WORMS. 

animals.  If  the  head  be  cut  off,  a  new  head  replaces  it ;  if  the  tail  be  severed, 
a  new  tail  is  acquired." 

The  mouth  of  the  Planariae  is  a  very  remarkable  structure.  Near  the 
middle  of  the  under  surface  there  are  two  transverse  slits,  from  the  anterior 
of  which  a  funnel-shaped  organ,  like  a  cup,  can  be  protruded.  This  acts  as  a 
mouth ;  it  is  soft,  highly  irritable,  and  when  drawn  within  the  body,  is  folded 
up  like  the  bud  of  a  plant.  This  singular  mouth  opens  immediately  into  the 
stomach  ;  it  can  be  protruded  at  pleasure,  and  applied  to  the  surface  of  such 
larvae  or  little  worms  as  may  come  within  reach,  so  as  to  suck  from  them  the 
juices  that  they  contain,  or  if  the  prey  be  small,  it  is  immediately  swallowed. 

But  the  most  wonderful  creatures  belonging  to  this  group  are 

The  Long  Sea- Worms  (Nemertes)*  occasionally  to  be  met  with  by  the 
sea-side  explorer,  coiled  up  under  loose  stones.  The  length  of  this  extraor- 
dinary production  of  Nature  is  positively  prodigious,  and  its  whole  history 
has  more  the  appearance  of  fable  than  of  sober  truth. 

"When  I  took  it  up  at  the  sea-side,"  says  the  Rev.  Mr.  Davis  ("Linn.  Trans.:/), 
"collecting  such  an  immense  creature  into  an  oyster-shell,  a  very  large  one  indeed,  I 
thought  it  would  have  been  almost  impossible  to  unravel  it ;  but  it  is  astonishing  to 
think  how  easily  it  was  disentangled,  owing  to  the  extraordinary  smoothness  of  its 
surface.  It  is  impossible  to  make  even  a  guess  at  the  length  of  it  when  alive  on  account 
of  its  always  extending  and  contracting  itself  when  touched,  and  that  with  such  ease  as 
almost  to  exceed  belief;  but  I  may  well  say  that  it  is  capable  of  extending  itself  with- 
out inconvenience  to  twenty-five  or  thirty  times  the  length  that  it  presents  at  another 
period.  It  being  impossible  while  the  animal  was  alive  to  make  any  reasonable  con- 
jecture as  to  the  length  of  it,  I  took  it  out  of  the  bottle,  and  examined  it  when  dead, 
when  I  found  it  to  be  two-and-twenty  feet  long,  exclusive  of  the  proboscis.  Now  I 
give  it  as  my  firm  opinion,  that  I  speak  within  bounds  when  I  say  the  animal,  when 
alive,  might  have  been  extended  to  four  times  the  length  it  presented  when  dead.  It 
is,  therefore,  by  no  means  improbable  that  this  most  astonishing  creature  may  have 
been  susceptible  of  being  drawn  out  to  the  length  of  twelve  fathoms,  or,  according  to 
the  accounts  of  the  fishermen,  to  thirty  yards,  or  fifteen  fathoms."' 

"The  ignorant  spectator, ''says  Sir  John  Dalyell,  "might  almost  suppose  this  animal 
to  be  only  designed  to  be  an  inconvenience  to  itself.  Who  can  affirm  that  he  has  ever 
seen  the  long  sea- worm  entire? — that  he  had  before  him  this  giant  of  the  race?  or  who 
can  presume  that  those,  apparently  of  the  largest  size,  shall  grow  no  more  ? 

"  Unwieldy  and  unmanageable  as  this  creature  seems,  it  attacks  and  devours  other 
worms  of  all  sorts.  Portions  of  mussel  are  always  acceptable,  and  are  greedily  swal- 
lowed by  its  capacious  mouth.  If  the  valves  of  a  mussel  be  sundered,  the  animal 
fastens  upon  one  of  them,  drags  it  away,  and  consumes  the  contents  at  leisure.  When 
he  desires  to  shift  his  quarters,  he  stretches  out  his  body  like  an  enormous  snake;  the 
eye  sees  no  contraction  of  muscles,  no  apparent  means  of  locomotion,  but  the  micro- 
scope teaches  us  that  the  Nemertes  glides  along  by  the  help  of  the  minute  vibratory 
cilia  with  which  his  whole  body  is  covered  ;  he  hesitates,  he  tries,  and  at  last  finds  a 
stone  to  his  taste,  whereupon  he  slowly  unrolls  his  length  to  convey  himself  to  his  new 
resting-place  ;  and  while  his  entangled  folds  are  unravelling  themselves  at  one  end, 
they  are  forming  a  new  Gordian  knot  at  the  other." 


s,  nemertes,  no  mistake  about  it. 


ARTICULATED  ANIMALS. 


59 


CHAPTER   IX. 

SECOND  DIVISIQN  OF  INVERTEBRATE  ANIMALS. 
ARTICULATED-  ANIMALS. 

WE  have  now  arrived  at  the  second  great  division  of  the 
animal  creation,  which. includes  a  vast  assemblage  of  crea- 
tures adapted  to  exist  under  a  far  greater  diversity  of  circum- 
stances than  those  we  have  as  yet  had  an  opportunity  of  examining. 
The  most  obvious  character  by  which  they  are  distinguished  is 
met  with  in  their  exterior  conformation.  They  are  composed  of 
a  succession  of  rings,  formed  by  the  skin  or  outward  integument, 
which,  from  its  hardness,  constitutes  a  sort  of  external  skeleton.  In 
the  lowest  forms  the  body  is  extremely  elongated,  the  segments 
proportionately  soft  and  numerous,  and,  as  a  necessary  conse- 
quence, limbs  either  do  not  exist,  or  are  feeble  and  imperfect. 
Such  is  the  structure  met  with  in  the  Annelida  or  Worms,  as, 
for  example,  in  the  Leech  (Fig.  53). 


FIG.  53.— LEECH. 

As  we  advance,  we  find  the  tegumentary  rings  become  less 
numerous,  and  the  skin  of  a  denser  and  more  firm  texture,  adapted 
to  sustain  the  action  of  stronger  and  more  powerful  muscles  ;  the 
limbs  likewise  become  more  elaborately  formed,  their  movements 
more  free  and  energetic.  Moreover,  the  instruments  of  sight  and 
touch  begin  to  assume  considerable  perfection  of  structure.  This 
state  of  development  we  find  in  the  Myriapoda  or  Centipedes 
(Fig.  55). 

In  the  Insects  the  perfection  of  the  external  skeleton  is  still 
more  remarkable,  and  the  integument  acquires  a  hardness  and 
solidity  proportioned  to  the  vigorous  movements  of  which  the 
limbs  are  now  capable.  The  rings  of  the  body,  hitherto  distinct, 
become  more  or  less  soldered  together  in  those  parts  where  the 

*  Articulatus,  jointed. 


6o 


ARTICULATED  ANIMALS. 


greatest  strength  and  firm- 
ness are  necessary  ;  and 
scarcely  any  traces  are  left 
to  indicate  their  existence  as 
separate  pieces  ;  so  that,  in- 
stead of  exhibiting  that  suc- 
cession of  similar  segments 
seen  in  the  centipedes,  the 
body  becomes  divided  into 
three  distinct  portions;  name- 
ly, the  head,  which  contains 
the  organs  of  the  senses  and 
the  parts  of  the  mouth,  the 
thorax,  supporting  the  limbs, . 
or  instruments  of  progres- 
sion, and  the  abdomen,  en- 
closing the  viscera  subservi- 
ent to  nutrition  and  reproduction.  (Fig.  54.) 


FIG.  54. — DIVISIONS  OF  A  BEETLE. 


FIG.  55. — SCORPION  AND  CENTIPEDE. 


In  the   fourth  division  of  articulated   animals,  namely,   the 
Arachnida  (scorpions,  spiders,  &c.),  a  still  further  consolidation 


ARTICULATED  ANIMALS.  61 

of  the  external  skeleton  is  visible,  for  in  these  creatures  even  the 
separation  between  the  head  and  the  thorax  becomes  obliterated, 
and  it  is  in  the  abdomen  only  that  the  segments  of  the  body  are 
recognizable.  By  contrasting  the  body  of  a  centipede  with  that 
of  a  scorpion,  as  represented  in  the  accompanying  figure  (Fig.  55), 
the  progress  of  this  coalescence  of  the  tegumentary  rings  is  strik- 
ingly exemplified. 

Lastly,  in  the  Crustacea  (crabs,  lobsters,  &c.)  we  find  various 
modifications  of  the  outward  skeleton  adapted  to  the  habits  of 


FIG.  56.— COMMON  CRAB. 

the  different  races.  Among  the  lowest  forms,  the  rings  composing 
the  external  framework  are  perfectly  distinct  and  separate,  resem- 
bling those  of  the  Myriapoda  ;  but  in  the  stronger  and  more  pre- 
dacious tribes  the  pieces  of  the  head  and  thorax  become  solidly 
fixed  together ;  and  in  those  forms  most  adapted  to  a  terrestrial 
life,  namely,  the  crabs,  almost  all  trace  of  distinction  between  the 
thoracic  segments  is  lost  in  the  construction  of  the  calcareous 
shield  which  covers  and  protects  their  whole  body.  (Fig.  56.) 

In  the  animals  described  in  preceding  chapters  the  nervous 
system,  wherever  it  has  been  at  all  discernible,  has  existed  only 
in  the  form  of  slender  threads,  without  being  accumulated  into 


62  ARTICULATED  ANIMALS. 

masses,  or  centres  of  perception.  In  all  creatures,  however,  be- 
longing to  the  articulate  division  of  the  animal  kingdom,  the 
nervous  system  is  arranged  upon  a  plan  which  is  sufficiently  con- 
spicuous throughout  the  entire  series.  A  double  chain  of  brains, 
or  ganglia,  runs  down  the  central  line  of  the  body  beneath  the 
alimentary  canal ;  and  it  is  from  the  symmetry  conspicuous  in 
the  arrangement  of  these  that  the  most  unmistakable  character 
whereby  the  Articulata  are  distinguished  is  furnished. 

The  first  pair  of  brains  or  ganglia  is  always  situated  in  the  head, 
and  supplies  nerves  to  the  eyes,  to  the  antennae,  and  to  all  the 
principal  instruments  of  sensation; — on  the  proportionate  size 
and  development  of  these  ganglia  the  perfection  of  the  senses 
possessed  by  any  of  these  creatures  depends,  consequently  they 
are  generally  spoken  of  as  the  brain. 


FIG.  57.— NERVES  OF  LEECH  AND  COCKCHAFER. 

All  the  other  ganglia  are  arranged  in  a  double  series  along  the 
floors  of  the  different  segments  of  the  body,  each  supplying  the 
muscles  belonging  to  the  rings  in  its  neighbourhood.  In  propor- 
tion to  the  size  and  perfection  of  these  ganglia,  therefore,  will  be 
the  energy  of  the  creature's  movements.  In  the  annexed  en- 
graving (Fig.  57),  representing  the  nervous  system  of  a  leech  and 
of  a  cockchafer,  it  will  be  seen  that  in  the  former  the  nervous 
centres  are  numerous  and  feeble,  corresponding  with  the  imper- 
fection of  the  organs  of  sense  and  the  absence  of  limbs,  whereas 
in  the  latter  they  are  proportionately  large  and  few  in  number, 
adapted  to  the  possession  of  senses  of  a  higher  description,  and 
limbs  endowed  with  great  strength  and  activity. 

The  Articulata  are  divided  into  five  principal  classes,  as  repre- 
sented in  the  following  table : 


ARTICULATED  ANIMALS. 


Blood  red  or  coloured 


/  Breathe  air 


Blood  white 


No  articulated  limbs.   Annelida,  p.  63. 


Segments  of  the  body' 
similar — no  distinc- 
tion into  head,  tho- 
rax, and  abdomen 
—  legs  twenty-four 
pairs  or  more  in  the 
adult  —  breathe  by 
tracheae  —  have  no 
wings  .... 

Body  divided  into^ 
head,  thorax,  and  1 
abdomen  —  have/ 


Myriapoda,  p.  72. 


provided  with  wings  I 
— respire  by  means 
of  tracheae         .     S 

Head  consolidateds 
with  the  thorax  — 
no  wings  —  have 
four  pairs  of  legs — 
breathe  by  tracheae 
or  by  pulmonary 
sacs 


Arachnida,  p.  137. 


I  fHave  in  general  five) 

x Breathe  waters   or  seven    pairs  of ?•  Crustacea,  p.  149. 
(  jointed  legs        .     J 


FIRST  CLASS  OF  ARTICULATED  ANIMALS 
WORMS.    ANNELIDA. 

The  body  of  the  Annelidans  is  composed  of  a  succession  of 
numerous  rings,  all  of  which  are  merely  repetitions  of  each  other. 
The  first  segment,  although  it  differs  but  little  from  the  rest,  is 
called  the  head.  The  skin  is  generally  soft,  and  the  rings  never 
horny  or  stony.  Many  Annelidans  are  entirely  destitute  of  legs, 
as,  for  example,  the  leech  (Fig.  53);  and  when  these  organs  exist 
they  are  never  formed  of  pieces  jointed  together  end  to  end,  as 
they  are  in  insects,  lobsters,  or  spiders ;  they  are  merely  fleshy 
protuberances,  that  support  bunches  of  stiff  sctcu,  or  bristles,  and 
are  used  as  oars  to  row  the  animal  through  the  water  (Fig.  58). 

Most  Annelidans  at  the  anterior  extremity  of  their  body  are 


64  ANNELIDANS. 


furnished  with  black  spots,  which  appear  to  be  eyes  of  very  simple 
structure.  They  often  have  on  the  head,  or  on 
the  sides  of  the  neck,  fleshy  filaments  called 
tentacles,  which  are  not  only  delicate  instru- 
ments of  touch,  but  sometimes  perform  other 
important  functions,  as  we  shall  see  hereafter. 
In  general,  these  animals  can  crawl  upon  the 
ground  by  means  of  their  setae  ;  many  live 
buried  in  the  earth,  or  are  enclosed  in  tubes 
which  they  never  leave.  They  mostly  inhabit 
the  sea,  and  are,  with  one  or  two  exceptions, 
FIG.  58.— FOOT  OF  NAIS.  carnivorous. 

The  Annelidans  are  divided  by  zoologists 

into  three  Orders,  according  to  the  nature  and  disposition  of  their 
respiratory  apparatus.  Some  appear  to  breathe  by  the  general 
surface  of  their  bodies,  and  have  no  special  respiratory  organs 
visible  externally;  these,  therefore,  have  been  called  Abranchia,* 
without  gills. 

In  a  second  division  the  breathing  apparatus  consists  of  a  series 
of  tufts  (Fig.  63)  or  fringes,  arranged  along  the  middle  or  on  each 
side  of  the  back  ;  these  are  the  Dorsibranchiata.f 

In  the  third  Order,  Tubicola,  J  the  Annelids  inhabit  a  tube, 
either-composed  of  shell  or  manufactured  by  the  agglutination  of 
various  materials.  These  have  their  branchiae  in  the  form  of 
plumes  or  branching  filaments  attached  to  the  head  or  neck 
(Fig.  65). 

FIRST  ORDER — ABRANCHIATE  ANIMALS. 

This  Order  comprehends  two  families,  which  differ  widely  from 
each  other.  The  Setig"era,§  which  have  locomotive  appendages 
in  the  shape  of  delicate  spines  or  bristles  (Earthworm,  Nais) ; 
and  Suctoria,  ||  which  are  destitute  of  such  appendages,  but  are 
furnished  instead  with  a  prehensile  sucker  attached  to  each  ex- 
tremity of  the  body  (Leeches). 

The  Earth,- Worms  (Lnmbricus).  The  common  well-known  species  (Lumbricus 
terrestris]  attains  nearly  a  foot  in  length ;  its  body  is  composed  of  120  rings  or  more,  and 
is  completely  destitute  of  eyes  or  tentacles.  Though  a  humble  and  despised  creature, 
the  earth-worm  is  a  most  important  item  in  the  economy  of  Nature.  Piercing  the 
ground  in  every  direction,  the  earth  is  lightened  by  the  united  labours  of  their  countless 
legions,  and  thus  they  materially  conduce  to  its  fertility.  It  consumes  upon  the  surface 

*  A,  not,  and  branchia,  a  gill.  t  Dorsum,  the  back  ;  branchia,  a  gill. 

\  Tubus,  a  tube ;  colo,  /  inhabit.  §  Seta,  a  bristle ;  gero,  I  carry. 

||  Suctorius,  sucking. 


LEECHES.  65 


of  the  ground,  where  they  soon  become  injurious,  the  softer  parts  of  decaying  vegetable 
matter,  and  conveys  beneath  the  soil  the  more  woody  fibres,  where  they  moulder  and 
form  the  nutriment  of  living  vegetation.  Thus  eminently  serviceable  to  the  agriculturist, 
it  likewise  constitutes  an  indispensable  article  of  food  for  innumerable  creatures  belonging 
to  every  order  of  creation  ;  and  perhaps  is  a  solitary  instance  of  an  individual  race  sub- 
jected to  universal  destruction.  The  very  emmets  seize  it  when  disabled,  and  bear  it 
away  as  a  prize;  it  constitutes  throughout  the  year  the  food  of  many  birds;  fishes  de- 
vour it  greedily ;  the  hedgehog  eats  it ;  the  mole  pursues  it  unceasingly  ;  and,  secured 
as  it  appears  to  be  by  its  residence  in  the  earth  from  creatures  inhabiting  a  different  ele- 
ment, many  aquatic  animals  seem  well  acquainted  with  it,  and  prey  on  it  as  a  natural 
food.  Frogs  eat  it,  and  it  is  even  seized  occasionally  by  the  great  water-beetle  (Dylicus 
marginalia]  when  used  as  a  bait  by  the  angler.  Yet  notwithstanding  this  prodigious 
destruction,  its  increase  is  fully  commensurate  with  the  consumption,  as  if  it  was  or- 
dained to  be  the  appointed  food  of  all. 

The  Naides  (.\  "<»'.>-)•*  The  mud  at  the  bottom  of  ponds  and  streams  is  frequently 
perforated  by  Annelidans  closely  allied  to  the  earth-worms.  Their  body  is  slender,  and 
the  rings  into  which  it  is  divided  are  few  and  but  slightly  marked.  They  commonly 
live  in  their  burrows,  merely  protruding  their  head,  which  is  furnished  with  a  long  pro- 
boscis, whereby  they  take  their  food,  and  for  this  purpose  it  is  kept  in  constant  motion. 
These  water-worms  have  a  power  of  multiplication  which  is  of  a  very  surprising  cha- 
racter. One  of  the  most  common  species  in  our  brooks  (A7ais  proboscidea]  consists,  when 
full  grown,  of  about  fourteen  segments.  After  a  time,  however,  new  segments  begin 
to  be  formed  a  little  in  front  of  the  tail ;  these  lengthen,  and  soon  begin  to  separate 
from  the  parent  animal  under  the  form  of  a  new  Mais,  provided  with  proboscis,  eye- 
specks,  and  everything  complete.  Sometimes  even  before  the  newly-formed  young  has 
quite  broken  off  its  connection  with  its  parent,  another  generation  is  in  course  of  pro- 
duction near  its  own  tail,  and  sometimes  even  this  has  begun  to  form  a  fourth  before  the 
separation  of  the  first  is  complete. 

The  Leeches  (Hirudo)  are  common  in  our  ponds. 

The  Medicinal  Leech  (Hintdo  medicinalis),  however,  is  not  indigenous  in  this 
country,  but  being  easily  obtainable,  we  shall  select  it  as  an  example  of  the  group 
(Fig.  53).  At  each  extremity  of  its  body  is  a  fleshy  disk,  which  in  progression  acts  as 
a  sucker;  it  can,  moreover,  swim  with  much  elegance,  but  not  with  rapidity.  Its  mouth, 


FIG.  50. — THROAT  OF  LEECH  LAID  OPE.V.  Fiu.  60. — TOOTH  OF  LEECH  MAGNIFIED. 


situated  in  the  middle  of  the  front  sucker,  is  furnished  with  three  small  semicircular 
teeth,  each  provided  with  a  saw-like  edge.  These  teeth  are  placed  in  a  tri-radiate  manner, 
so  that  when  the  action  of  the  sucker  has  made  the  skin  of  its  victim  tense,  their  edges 
are  pressed  against  it  with  a  saw-like  movement  until  three  cuts -are  made,  extending 

*  Xais,  a  water  nymph. 


66  ANNELIDANS. 


to  some  depth,  and  the  blood  thus  liberated  is  largely  sucked  into  the  capacious  sto- 
mach. The  tribe  of  leeches  is  very  numerous ;  they  all  feed  at  the  expense  of  other 
animals;  they  attach  themselves  to  fishes  and  frogs;  sometimes  they  devour  mollusks, 
worms,  or  the  larvae  of  insects.  Few  animal  substances  are  rejected  ;  all  kinds  of  fish, 
dead  or  alive,  seem  acceptable.  Entering  the  larger  fresh-water  shells,  the  leech  takes 
up  its  abode,  an  uninvited  visitor,  and  remains  until  it  has  emptied  them  of  their  con- 
tents. They  even  devour  other  leeches.  Sir  J,  Dalyell  saw  one  half-swallowed  by  a 
horse-leech  scarcely  double  its  size,  and  still  struggling  for  liberty ;  but  its  ferocious 
enemy,  adhering  firmly  by  its  sucker,  and  undulating  its  body  in  the  water  as  if  to  aid 
deglutition,  occupied  three  hours  in  finishing  its  meal.  The  use  of  the  medicinal  leeches 
is  so  general  that  they  have  become  an  important  article  of  commerce,  and  are  procured 
in  great  quantities  from  Spain  and  Russia.  They  may  be  preserved  for  a  long  time  by 
placing  them  in  moist  earth  or  mud.  On  the  approach  of  cold  weather  they  bury  them- 
selves at  the  bottom  of  ponds,  and  pass  the  winter  in  lethargy,  but  they  regain  their 
activity  in  spring. 


FIG.  Ci.  -LuLOONS  OF  LEF.CH. 

When  kept  in  large  reservoirs,  with  clay  banks  fringed  with  rushes  and  aquatic  plants, 
the  leech  will  propagate  its  kind.  It  lays  about  a  dozen  eggs,  enclosed  in  a  mucous 
cocoon  of  an  oval  form,  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long.  In  the  month  of  August  holes 
may  be  observed  in  the  mud  or  clay  of  the  banks,  each  of  which  contains  a  cocoon. 
The  eggs  are  hatched  in  about  a  week,  but  it  is  three  weeks  before  the  young  leave  their 
slimy  cradle.  During  the  interval  the  cocoon  has  become  considerably  distended,  and 
the  little  animals  are  continually  pushing  its  walls  with  their  heads,  as  if  trying  to  find 
a  weak  point  and  escape.  When  at  last  their  increasing  strength  enables  them  to  burst 
forth,  they  are  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long,  and  no  thicker  than  a  thread. 

SECOND  ORDER — DORSIBRANCHIATE  ANNELIDANS. 

In  the  Dorsibranchiate  Armelidans  the  respiratory  organs 
consist  of  fringes  or  arborescent  tufts,  distributed  in  pairs  along 
the  sides  of  the  back.  In  some  cases,  every  ring  is  thus  furnished, 
but  in  others,  only  those  rings  which  are  near  the  middle.  These 
worms  are  all  free  :  they  burrow  in  the  mud  or  sand,  or  swim  in 
the  open  sea  ;  they  are  therefore  supplied  with  organs  of  loco- 
motion, which,  for  the  most  part,  assume  the  form  of  moveable 
spines  or  packets  of  retractile  bristles  attached  to  each  segment 
of  the  body. 

It  is  not,  however,  by  mere  prosy  description  that  we  can  convey 
to  our  readers  any  adequate  idea  of  the  beauty  of  these  splendid 
worms  ;  here  we  must  let  their  great  historian,  M.  de  Quatrefages, 


EUNICE.  67 


speak  for  himself :   his  pen  can  best   portray  what  his  patient 
industry  has  so  admirably  displayed. 

"  Upon  the  Isle  de  Chaussy,"  says  that  distinguished  anatomist, 
"the  wandering  Annelids  occupied  my  special  attention.  Hitherto 
I  had  only  known  this  numerous  family  of  sea-worms  through 
engravings ;  and  although  I  had  formed  a  tolerably  exact  notion 
of  their  structure,  I  had  not  the  slightest  idea  how  many  points 
of  interest  attached  to  them.  When  I  had  once  surprised  within 
their  secure  retreats  the  Polynoc  with  its  lucid  scales,  the  PJiyl- 
lodoce  with  its  hundred  bright  green  rings,  the  Eunice  with  its 
purple  crest,  the  Tcrebella  surrounded  by  a  crowd  of  innumerable 
living  cables  which  serve  it  in  the  place  of  arms, — when  I  had 
seen  displayed  before  my  eyes  the  rich  fan  of  the  Sabella,  and 
the  enamelled  collar  of  the  Serpula>  I  no  longer  smiled,  as  I  had 
done  before,  at  the  thought  of  the  naturalist  having  conferred 
upon  them  the  most  charming  names  he  could  think  of.  These 
despised  creatures  seemed  to  me  no  less  worthy  of  a  naturalist's 
homage  than  the  most  brilliant  insect  or  the  fairest  flower.  Let 
no  one  prate  to  me  any  more  about  the  violet  as  a  pattern  of 
modesty  !  The  coquette  !  See  how  she  shows  from  far  her  fresh 
tuft  of  green  leaves,  and  scatters  abroad  the  perfume  that  invites 
you  to  approach.  More  skilful  than  her  rivals,  she  knows  that 
mystery  is  the  greatest  of  all  attractions,  and  that  the  rose  herself 
loses  by  displaying  her  charms  in  broad  daylight ;  therefore  it  is 
that  she  seeks  the  obscurity  of  the  woods  and  the  shelter  of  the 
hedge-side.  But  look  at  the  Annelids  !  what  do  they  lack  when 
compared  with  the  most  splendid  inhabitants  of  earth  or  air  ?  Yet 
they  shun  the  light,  they  withdraw  themselves  from  our  view,  but 
with  no  design  to  attract ;  and  the  naturalist  alone  knows  where 
to  seek  the  strange  wonders  which  are  hidden  within  the  recesses 
of  the  rock  and  beneath  the  sandy  beds  of  the  ocean.  You  may 
smile  at  my  enthusiasm,  but  come  and  judge  for  yourself.  All 
is  prepared  !  Our  lamp  gives  a  light  almost  equal  to  a  jet  of  gas, 
while  a  large  lens,  mounted  upon  a  moveable  foot,  receives  the  rays 
of  light,  and  concentrates  them  upon  our  field  of  view.  We  have 
just  placed  upon  the  stage  a  little  trough  filled  with  sea-water,  in 
which  an  Eunice  is  disporting  itself.  See  how  indignant  it  is  at 
its  captivity ;  how  its  numerous  rings  contract,  elongate,  twist  into 
a  spiral  coil,  and  at  every  movement  emit  flashes  of  splendour  in 
which  all  the  tints  of  the  prism  are  blended  in  the  brightest  me- 
tallic reflections.  It  is  impossible,  in  the  midst  of  this  tumultuous 
agitation,  to  distinguish  anything  definitely.  But  it  is  more  quiet 

5 — 2 


68 


ANNELIDANS. 


now  ;  lose  no  time  in  examining  it.  See  how  it  crawls  along  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel,  with  its  thousand  feet  moving  rapidly  for- 
wards. See  what  beautiful  plumes  adorn  the  sides  of  the  body: 
these  are  the  branchiae,  or  organs  of  respiration,  which  become 
vermilion  as  they  are  swelled  by  the  blood,  the  course  of  which 
you  may  trace  all  along  the  back.  Look  at  that  head  enamelled 
with  the  brightest  colours  :  here  are  the  few  tentacles,  delicate 
organs  of  touch,  and  here,  in  the  midst  of  them,  is  the  mouth, 
which  at  first  sight  seems  merely  like  an  irregularly  puckered  slit. 
But  watch  it  for  a  few  moments  ;  see  how  it  opens  and  protrudes 
a  large  proboscis,  furnished  with  three  pairs  of  jaws,  and  possess- 
ing a  diameter  which  equals  that  of  the  body  within  which  it  is 
enclosed,  as  in  a  living  sheath.  Well  I  is  it  not  wonderful  ?  Is 
there  any  animal  that  can  surpass  it  in  decoration  ?  The  corslet 
of  the  brightest  beetle,  the  sparkling  throat  of  the  humming-bird, 
would  all  look  pale  when  compared  with  the  play  of  light  over 
the  rings  of  its  body,  glowing  in  its  golden  threads,  and  sparkling 
over  its  amber  and  coral  fringes.  Now  let  us  take  a  lens  of 
higher  power,  and  move  the  lamp  in  such  a  manner  as  to  let  its 
rays  fall  on  the  reflector  of  our  microscope,  and  examine  a  few 
of  the  hairs  taken  from  the  sides  of  the  Annelid  we  have  been 
describing.  To  the  outer  edge  of  every  foot  are  appended  two 


FIG.  62. — PUSHING-POLES  OF  SERPULA. 

bundles  of  hairs  (setce} ;  these  are  far  stiffer  than  ordinary  hairs, 
and  appear  to  be  placed  on  either  side  of  the  animal  to  defend  it 
from  its  enemies.  A  moment's  consideration  will  suffice  to  con- 
firm this  view,  for  there  is  perhaps  scarcely  a  weapon  invented 
by  the  murderous  genius  of  man  whose  counterpart  could  not  be 
found  amongst  this  class  of  animals.  Here  are  curved  blades, 
whose  edges  present  a  prolonged  cutting  surface,  sometimes  on 
the  concave  edge,  as  in  the  yatagan  of  the  Arab,  sometimes  on 
the  convex  border,  as  in  the  Oriental  scimitar.  Next  we  meet 
with  weapons  which  remind  us  of  the  broadsword  of  the  cuirassier, 
the  sabre,  and  the  bayonet ;  here  are  harpoons,  fish-hooks,  and 
cutting  blades  of  every  form,  loosely  attached  to  a  sharp  handle  : 


MARINE   WORMS.  69 


these  moveable  pieces  are  intended  to  remain  in  the  body  of  the 
enemy,  while  the  handle  which  supported  them  becomes  a  long 
spike,  as  sharp  as  it  was  before.  Here  we  have  straight  or  curved 
poniards,  cutting-bills,  arrows  with  the  barbs  turned  backwards, 
but  carefully  provided  with  a  sheath  to  protect  the  fine  indentations 
from  being  blunted  by  friction  or  broken  by  any  unforeseen  acci- 
dent. Finally,  if  the  enemy  should  disregard  his  first  wounds, 
there  darts  from  every  foot  a  shorter  but  stronger  spear,  which  is 
brought  into  play  by  a  special  set  of  muscles,  so  soon  as  the  com- 
batants are  sufficiently  near  to  grapple  in  close  fight/' 

It  is  not  without  reason  that  Nature  has  endowed  these  amazons 
with  more  finely  polished  and  sharper  pointed  weapons  than  any 
wielded  by  the  Paladins  of  old  :  destined  to  live  by  rapine,  and 
exposed  to  the  attacks  of  a  thousand  enemies,  they  need  them 
both  as  means  of  attack  and  defence.  Almost  all  feed  upon  living 
prey.  Some  wait  in  ambush  for  the  passing  by  of  small  Crus- 
taceans, Planariae,  or  other  minute  animals,  and  seize  their  victims 
with  their  proboscis  or  entwine  them  in  the  folds  of  their  numerous 
arms.  Others  again,  more  active  than  the  rest,  pursue  their  game 
over  the  sand  or  through  thick  tufts  of  Corallines  and  other  marine 
plants.  Some  attach  themselves  to  shells,  and  having  perforated 
them,  devour  their  inhabitants.  The  Hcrmclla  thus  commits  great 
havoc  among  the  oyster-beds,  destroying  numerous  colonies  of 
this  much-cherished  mollusk.  These  Annelids  are,  in  their  turn, 
pursued  by  a  multitude  of  carnivorous  animals.  Fishes  wage  a 
rude  war  against  them,  and  if  one,  more  imprudent  than  the  rest, 
should  abandon  its  retreat,  or  be  exposed  to  view  by  the  waves, 
it  rarely  escapes  the  murderous  jaws  of  some  whiting,  sole,  plaice, 
or  eel.  It  is  asserted  that  the  latter  kind  of  fish  are  well  ac- 
quainted with  the  mode  of  drawing  them  out  of  the  sand,  as  do 
the  whelks.  But  crabs,  lobsters,  and  a  host  of  other  Crustaceans, 
constitute  their  most  formidable  enemies,  and  are  protected  by 
their  armour  from  the  formidable  weapons  of  the  Annelida. 


FIG.  63. — SAND-WORM. 

The  Sand- Worm  (Arenicola}*  is  exceedingly  abundant  on  sandy  shores, 
and  is  much  sought  for  and  used  by  fishermen  as  a  bait.     Its  usual  name  on 

*  Arena,  the  sand ;  colo,  I  inhabit. 


70  ANNELIDANS. 


the  coast  is  the  "  Lug,"  or  "  Lug-Worm."  It  is  of  a  greenish  red  colour,  and 
the  gill-tufts,  which  form  two  rows  upon  the  middle  portion  of  its  body  (Fig.  63), 
are  of  a  beautiful  crimson,  from  the  blood  which  circulates  in  them  abundantly. 
This  worm  bores  rapidly  in  the  sand  by  means  of  its  conical  head ;  and  as  it 
moves  on,  the  unstable  sides  of  the  passage  are  prevented  from  closing 
up  by  a  secretion  from  the  body  of  the  animal,  which  cements  the  particles 
together  into  a  kind  of  wall.  This,  as  the  creature  advances,  is  left  behind, 
imitating,  in  miniature,  the  brickwork  of  a  tunnel. 

The  Nereids  (Nereis)*  have  branchial  tufts  and  locomotive  oars  appended 
to  every  segment;  they  are  carnivorous,  and  their  mouth  exhibits  a  very 
singular  structure.  The  commencement  of  the  alimentary  canal  is  capable 
of  being  turned  inside  out,  like  the  finger  of  a  glove.  When  thus  everted,  it 
appears  like  a  thick  proboscis,  armed  with  a  formidable  array  of  sharp  teeth, 
curved  fangs,  keen  knives,  and  horny  plates  resembling  rasps  or  files,  the 
shape  of  which  varies  in  different  species,  but  always  calculated  to  seize  and 
retain  passing  prey.  No  sooner  is  some  small  animal  seized  by  this  won- 
derful apparatus,  than  the  whole  protruded  proboscis  is  quickly  inverted, 
carrying  the  hapless  victim  into  the  living  cavern,  from  which  there  is  no 
escape.  Among  the  Nereids  may  be  noted 

The  Eunice!  glgantea,  the  largest  Annelidan  known.  We  have  at  this  moment 
a  specimen  before  us,  which  measures  upwards  of  four  feet  in  length,  and  consists  of 
448  segments,  all  provided  with  their  complement  of  oars.  It  is  a  beautiful  sight  to  see 
a  man-of-war's  barge,  fully  manned  with  sturdy  rowers,  gliding  along  over  the  level  sur- 
face of  the  sea,  the  oars  all  keeping  time  with  such  precision  that  they  seem  to  move 
as  by  one  impulse.  It  is  a  grand  spectacle  to  behold  the  meteor-like  progress  of  a 
steam-ship  as  it  cleaves  its  onward  path ;  but  far  more  beautiful,  far  more  magnificent 
to  the  admirer  of  the  works  of  Nature  to  observe  the  movements  of  these  splendid  worms. 
Let  any  one  imagine  this  gorgeous  animal  free  in  its  native  seas,  blazing  as  it  does  with 
iridescent  tints,  that  answer  back  again  the  glowing  brilliancy  of  a  tropical  sun,  while  it 
rows  along  its  "oary  state"  by  means  of  upwards  of  1,700  distinct  laminae,  all  wielded 
with  such  energy  that  the  eye  can  scarcely  follow  their  movements — and  he  will  perhaps 
form  some  faint  idea  of  the  efficiency  of  a  locomotive  apparatus  such  as  is  provided  for 
the  Dorsibranchiate  Annelidans. 

"With  our  notions  of  a  worm,"  says  Dr.  Hartwich,  "we  gene- 
rally connect  the  idea  of  incompleteness  ;  we  are  apt  to  consider 
them  as  beings  equally  uninteresting  and  ugly,  and  disdain  to  in- 
quire into  the  wonders  of  their  organization  ;  but  a  cursory  exami- 
nation of  the  Eunice  would  alone  suffice  to  give  us  a  very  different 
opinion  of  these  despised  but  far  from  despicable  animals.  Three 
hundred  brains,  from  which  about  three  thousand  nerves  proceed, 
regulate  its  movements.  Two  hundred  and  fifty  stomachs  digest 
its  food  ;  five  hundred  and  fifty  branchiae  refresh  its  blood ;  six 
hundred  hearts  distribute  this  vital  fluid  through  its  body ;  and 
thirty  thousand  muscles  obey  the  will  of  the  worm,  and  execute 
its  snake-like  movements.  Surely  there  is  here  but  little  occa- 
sion to  commiserate  v/ant  or  scoff  at  poverty !  " 

The  Sea-Mouse  (Halithea%  aculeata]  (Fig.  64)  is  common  on  our  coasts,  and  is 
*  A  nymph.  f  A  nymph.  J  a\s,  als,  the  sea  ;  6ea,  thea,  a  goddess. 


TUBE-WORMS, 


frequeni.lv  dredged  up  from  muddy  ground.  The  Annelid  is  four  or  five  inches  in  length 
— of  a  greyish  hue,  and  clothed  on  the  back  with  a  fine  silky  down,  under  which  are 
concealed  fifteen  pairs  of  scaly  plates,  one  pair  on  each  ring.  The  under  surface  is 
smooth,  but  marked  by  transverse  divisions,  indicating  that  it  is  formed  of  about  forty 
rings  or  segments.  On  the  sides  project  bunches  of  hairs  resembling  the  finest  silk,  and 
bedizened  with  iridescent  colours  ;  they  yield,  indeed,  in  no  respect  to  the  most  gorgeous 
tints  of  tropical  birds,  or  the  brilliant  decorations  of  insects :  green,  yellow,  and  orange, 
blue,  purple,  and  scarlet, — all  the  hues  of  the  rainbow  play  upon  them  with  the  chang- 
ing light,  and  shine  with  a  metallic  effulgence  only  comparable  to  that  which  adorns 
the  breast  of  the  humming-bird.  But  it 
is  not  only  for  their  dazzling  beauty  that 
these  worms  are  remarkable  :  many  of 
them  are  armed  with  spines,  that  con- 
stitute important  weapons  of  defence  ; 
each  of  these  spines  is  seen,  under  the 
microscope,  to  be  a  perfect  harpoon,  its 
point  being  provided  with  a  double  series 
of  strong  barbs,  so  that  when  the  crea- 
ture erects  its  bristles,  much  more  for- 
midable than  the  spines  of  a  hedge- 
hog, the  most  determined  enemy. would 
scarcely  venture  to  attack  it.  The^e 
spines  are  all  retractile,  and  can  be 
drawn  into  the  body  by  the  muscular 
tube  from  which  they  spring.  It  would 
be  superfluous  to  point  out  the  danger  that  would  accrue  to  the  animal  itself  by  the  pre- 
sence of  such  instruments  embedded  in  its  body,  as  by  every  movement  they  would  be 
forced  into  its  own  flesh.  The  contrivance  to  obviate  such  an  accident  is  as  beautiful  as 
it  is  simple :  every  barbed  spine  is  furnished  with  a  smooth,  horny  sheath,  composed 
of  two  blades,  between  which  it  is  lodged  (Fig.  64),  and  these,  closing  upon  the  barbs 
when  they  are  drawn  inwards,  effectually  protect  the  neighbouring  soft  parts  from 
laceration. 


FIG.  64. — SEA-MOUSE. 


FIG.  65.— SEKPI.-LA. 

THIRD  ORDER — TUEICOLOUS  AXXELIDAXS. 

The  Tubicolous  Annelidans,  as  their  name  imports,  reside  in 
tubes,  which  are  either  composed  of  a  dense  shelly  substance,  or 
constructed  by  gluing  together  fragments  of  sand,  small  stones, 
and  other  similar  materials.  To  the  former  section  belong 


MYRIAPODA. 


The  Serpulss  (Serpnlce}^  (Fig.  65),  found  on  every  coast,  encrusting  stones 
or  shells,  or  any  substance  that  has  lain  for  any  length  of  time  at  the  bottom 
of  the  sea.  The  animal  inhabiting  these  shells  is  a  worm  entirely  destitute 

of  limbs,  but  its  front  part,  or  head, 
daring  life  presents  a  very  beautiful 
spectacle,  for  from  each  side  there 
spreads  an  elegant  plume,  composed  of 
branched  filaments  of  a  rich  scarlet  or 
crimson  hue,  which  float  loosely  in  the 
water,  and  constitute  the  gills  or  bran- 
chiae. Besides  these  splendid  branchial 
fringes,  the  head  has  one  of  its  tentacles 
expanded  into  a  broad  trumpet-shaped 
extremity,  which  accurately  fits  the 
mouth  of  the  tube,  so  that  when  the 
creature  is  alarmed,  it  quietly  draws  in 
this  singular  trap-door,  and  remains 
securely  shut  up  within  its  shelly  abode. 
The  Terebellsef  inhabit  factitious 
shells,  composed  of  grains  of  sand,  frag- 
ments of  shell,  or  even  whole  shells, 
small  stones,  and  similar  substances, 
which  they  glue  together,  and  thus  con- 
struct a  beautiful  tube,  represented  in 
the  engraving  (Fig.  66).  This  is  effected 
by  means  of  the  tentacula  that  surround 
its  head,  which  are  extended  in  every 
direction  in  search  of  appropriate  ma- 
terials for  the  construction  of  their  residence. 

The  SabellaJ  Alveolaris  often  covers  wide  surfaces  of  rock,  near  low- 
water-mark,  with  its  aggregated  tubes.  When  the  flood  recedes,  nothing  is 
seen  but  the  closed  orifices ;  but  when  covered  with  the  rising  waters,  the 
sandy  surface  transforms  itself  into  a  beautiful  picture.  From  each  aperture 
stretches  forth  a  neck  ornamented  with  concentric  rings  of  golden  hair,  termi- 
nating in  a  head  embellished  with  a  tiara  of  delicately-tinted  tentacula  ;  so 
that  the  whole  looks  like  a  garden  bed,  enamelled  with  gay  flowers  of  elegant 
forms  and  variegated  colours. 


FIG.  66. — TEREBELLA  MEDUSA. 


T 


CHAPTER  X. 

SECOND  CLASS  OF  ARTICULATED  ANIMALS. 
CENTIPEDES.    MYRIAPODA.  § 

HE   Annelidans   examined    in  the  last  chapter,   with  the 
singular  exception  of  the  earth-worm,  are  only  adapted  to 


*  Serpo,  to  tivist  about  like  a  serpent.  f  Terebellum,  a  little  auger  or  piercer. 

\  A  proper  name.  §  /j.vpids,  murias,  innumerable;  TTOVS,  pous,  afoot. 


MYRIAPODA.  73 


an  aquatic  life.  The  soft  integument  which  forms  their  outer 
framework,  and  the  feeble  organs  appended  to  the  numerous 
segments  of  their  lengthy  bodies,  are  far  too  weak  to  support 
their  weight  in  a  less  dense  and  buoyant  element,  so  that,  when 
removed  from  their  native  waters,  they  are  utterly  helpless  and 
impotent.  Supposing,  as  a  matter  of  mere  speculation,  it  was 
inquired,  by  what  means  animals  so  constructed  could  be  ren- 
dered capable  of  assuming  a  terrestrial  existence,  so  as  to  seek 
and  obtain  their  food  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  thus  re- 
present upon  land  the  Annelidans  of  the  ocean  ;  a  little  reflection 
would  at  once  indicate  the  grosser  changes  required  for  the  attain- 
ment of  such  an  object.  To  convert  the  water-breathing  organs 
of  the  aquatic  worms  into  an  apparatus  adapted  to  breathe  the 
air  would  be  the  first  requisite.  The  second  would  be  to  give 
greater  firmness  to  the  tegumentary  skeleton,  to  allow  of  more 
powerful  and  accurately  applied  muscular  force,  by  diminishing 
the  number  of  the  segments,  and  by  converting  the  lateral  oars 
into  jointed  limbs  sufficiently  strong  to  sustain  the  whole  weight 
of  the  body,  to  provide  instruments  of  locomotion  fitted  for  pro- 
gression upon  the  ground.  Yet  all  these  changes  would  be 
inefficient  without  corresponding  modifications  in  the  nervous 
system.  The  lengthened  chain  of  minute  ganglia,  met  with  in  the 
leech  (Fig.  57),  would  be  quite  inadequate  to  wield  muscles  of 
strength  adapted  to  such  altered  circumstances  ;  the  small  brain 
would  be  incompetent  to  correspond  with  more  exalted  senses ; 
so  that,  as  a  necessary  consequence  of  superior  organization,  the 
nervous  centres  must  all  be  increased  in  their  proportionate 
development,  to  adapt  them  to  higher  functions.  The  changes 
which  our  supposition  infers  would  be  requisite  for  the  conver- 
sion of  an  aquatic  Annelid  into  a  Myriapod  are  precisely  those 
which  we  encounter.  The  air-breathing  animals  which  we  have 
now  to  describe  form  the  transition  from  the  red-blooded  worms 
to  the  class  of  insects,  and  are  intermediate  between  these  two 
great  classes  in  every  part  of  their  structure.  The  body  of  a 
Myriapod  consists  of  a  consecutive  series  of  segments  of  equal 
dimensions,  but,  unlike  those  of  the  Annelidans,  composed  of  a 
dense,  semi-calcareous,  or  else  of  a  firm,  horny  substance,  and  to 
every  segment  is  appended  one  or  two  pairs  of  articulated  legs, 
generally  terminated  by  simple  points. 

The  anterior  segment,  or  head,  besides  the  organs  belonging  to 
the  mouth,  contains  the  instruments  of  sense,  consisting  of  simple 
or  compound  eyes,  and  of  two  long  and  jointed  organs,  called 


74  MYRIAPODA. 


antenna,  generally  regarded  as  ministering  to  the  sense  of  touch, 
but  which  are  probably  connected  with  other  perceptions  unin- 
telligible to  us. 

The  air  required  for  respiration  is  taken  into  the  body  through 
a  series  of  minute  pores,  or  spiracles,  placed  on  each  side  along 
the  entire  length  of  the  animal,  and  is  distributed  by  innumer- 
able ramifying  tubes  or  tracheae  to  all  parts  of  the  system.  The 
number  of  segments,  and  consequently  of  feet,  increases  progres- 
sively with  age — a  circumstance  which  remarkably  distinguishes 
the  Myriapoda  from  insects  properly  so  called.  There  are  two 
families  belonging  to  this  class — the  Millepedes,  or  Julidse,  which 
feed  on  vegetable  substances,  and  the  Scolopendridae,  or  Centi- 
pedes, which  are  carnivorous  and  rapacious. 

The  Millepedes*  (Julus)  are  distinguished  by  their  nearly  cylindrical 
form  (Fig.  67),  their  slow  gliding  motion  produced  by  the  alternate  action  of 
their  very  numerous  little  feet,  sometimes  more  than  a  hundred  in  number, 
and  their  habit  of  rolling  themselves  into  a  close  spiral  when  touched.  They 
resort  to  damp  and  dark  places,  lurk  under  stones  and  moss,  and  are  still 
more  commonly  found  beneath  the  bark  and  in  the  wood  of  decaying  trees. 
They  are  perfectly  harmless,  and  feed  entirely  on  decomposing  vegetable 


FIG.  £7.— Jri.rs. 

materials.  For  this  purpose  their  mouth  is  furnished  with  a  pair  of  stout 
horny  jaws,  which  move  horizontally,  and  are  provided  at  their  cutting  edges 
with  sharp  denticulations,  so  as  to  render  them  effective  instruments  in 
dividing  the  fibres  of  rotting  wood,  or  the  roots  and  leaves  of  decaying  plants. 
Most  of  them  emit  a  very  rank  disagreeable  odour.  The  female  Millepede 
deposits  her  eggs,  which  are  very  minute,  in  the  earth,  or  in  the  earthy  powder 
of  decayed  wood.  The  young,  when  first  hatched,  are  quite  destitute  of  limbs, 
and  have  much  the  appearance  of  microscopic  kidney  beans.  In  the  course 
of  a  few  days,  however,  they  throw  off  their  first  skin,  and  make  their  appear- 
ance, divided  into  about  eight  segments,  of  which  the  three  that  immediately 
follow  the  head  have  each  a  pair  of  legs.  In  a  few  days  more,  a  second  moult 
takes  place ;  the  body  is  enlarged,  the  number  of  segments  increased,  and  the 
number  of  limbs  augmented  to  seven  pairs  on  the  segments  succeeding  the 
head.  At  the  end  of  a  month,  or  thereabouts,  after  another  change  of  clothes, 
the  young  Millepede  appears  with  twenty-six  pairs  of  feet,  and  so  the  process 
of  exuviation  is  again  and  again  repeated,  until  the  creature  arrives  at  its 
mature  condition. 

The  Centipedes  f  (Scolopendra)  (Fig.  55)  are  much  more  formidable 
creatures  than  the  Millepedes  :  they  have  a  broad  flattened  body,  composed 
of  about  four-and-twenty  segments,  to  each  of  which  is  appended  a  pair  of 

*  Mille,  a  thousand ;  pcs,  a  foot.  f  Centum,  a  hundred ;  pes,  a  foot. 


INSECTS.  75 


stout  jointed  limbs,  well  adapted,  by  the  energy  and  activity  of  their  move- 
ments, to  the  pursuit  of  active  prey.  The  mouth  of  the  Scolopendra  is  a 
terrible  instrument  of  destruction,  being  not  only  provided  with  horny  jaws, 
resembling  those  of  Julus,  but  armed  with  a  tremendous  pair  of  massive  and 
curved  fangs,  ending  in  sharp  points,  and  perforated  near  their  termination  by 
a  minute  orifice,  through  which  a  poisonous  fluid  is  instilled  into  the  wounds 
they  inflict.  Several  small  species  are  common  in  our  gardens  ;  but  in  hot 
climates  they  grow  to  a  great  size,  and  their  bite,  though  rarely  fatal,  is  more 
dangerous  than  the  sting  of  the  scorpion. 

The  Giant  Centipede  (Scolopendra  gigas],  common  in  South  America,  measures 
upwards  of  a  foot  in  length,  and  an  inch  and  a  quarter  across  its  body.  Other  species, 
scarcely  less  formidable,  inhabit  India  and  the  adjacent  islands,  and  abound  in  the 
hottest  parts  of  Africa.  They  creep  into  houses,  lurk  under  articles  of  furniture  and. 
behind  wainscots,  hide  themselves  in  drawers  and  cupboards,  and  sometimes  are  found 
even  in  beds,  much  to  the  disgust  and  apprehension  of  all  who  are  not  familiarized 
with  their  presence.  The  largest  species  met  with  in  this  country  is 

The  Forked  Centipede  (Lit/whins  fcrjicatits}.*  It  is  found  in  the  earth  and 
under  stones  in  our  gardens,  and  is  quick  and  active  in  its  movements.  It  does  not 
measure  more  than  an  inch  and  a  quarter  in  length,  and  is  of  a  tawny  red  colour,  with 
fifteen  feet  on  each  side. 

The  Electric  Scolopendra  (Scolofcndra  elcdrica),  likewise  a  British  species, 
is  occasionally  luminous  in  the  dark. 


CHAPTER  XL 
THIRD  CLASS  OF  ARTICULATED  ANIMALS. 

•      IXSECTS.f 

HAVE  patience  with  us,  gentle  reader — our  task  is  no  light 
one.  -To  mete  out  the  sands  upon  the  sea-shore  with  a 
quart  pot,  to  drain  the  ocean  with  a  thimble,  to  count  the  stars, 
are  ordinary  expressions  for  impossibilities  ;  but  to  condense  the 
history  of  the  insect  world  into  a  few  short  pages,  would  be  a 
miracle  beyond  them  all.  The  number  of  species  of  insects,  as 
we  are  told  by  entomologists,  amounts  to  upwards  of  a  hundred 
thousands  ;  so  various  in  their  habits  and  their  manners;  their 
instincts  and  their  appetites,  that  every  species  would  itself  furnish 
a  large  volume  of  interesting  information,  could  we  only  penetrate 
the  mysteries  of  their  lives ;  and  yet  how  little  has  been  done  in 
gaining  anything  like  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  their  daily 
duties,  by  a  careful  and  watchful  perusal  of  their  economy !  The 
secresy  of  Creation,  however,  is  not  to  be  rudely  broken.  Nature 

*  \i'0os,  lithos,  a  stone ;  j3iju,  bioo,  I  live — because  it  lives  under  stones, 
f  Insectum,  divided  into  segments. 


7r>  INSECTS. 

is  a  very  coy  mistress  ;  watchful  nights,  anxious  days,  slender 
meals,  and  endless  labours  must  be  the  lot  of  all  those  who  pursue 
her  through  her  labyrinths  and  meanders  ;  nor  will  she  ever  con- 
fess to  violence  what  she  is  ready  freely  to  disclose  to  patient 
and  attentive  solicitation.  See  the  amateur  entomologist,  fur- 
nished with  his  nets  and  boxes,  and  all  the  adjuncts  invented  by 
art  for  the  purpose  of  waging  war  against  the  insect  race,  beating 
up  the  whole  country,  toiling  over  hill  and  dale  with  indefatigable 
perseverance,  and  so  eager  in  his  pursuit  that  he  hardly  allows 
himself  time  to  stick  his  murderous  pins  through  the  unfortunate 
victims  caught  in  his  nets — and  never  wearying  of  his  sport  until 
his  collecting-box  is  converted  into  a  little  charnel-house,  filled 
with  their  closely-packed  and  writhing  bodies.  He  returns  home, 
delighted  with  his  success  ;  but  in  spite  of  all  his  labour,  he  has 
not  added  a  single  item  to  our  knowledge,  or  a  single  fact  to  the 
unknown  history  of  any  one  species  of  his  numerous  specimens. 
This  was  not  the  way  in  which  Reaumur  or  De  Geer  devoted  them- 
selves to  the  interrogation  of  Nature  :  their  efforts  were  directed 
not  to  the  destruction,  but  to  the  preservation,  of  the  objects  of 
their  study.  They  wielded  not  the  scissors  of  the  Fates,  where- 
with to  cut  the  frail  thread  of  insect  life  ;  their  method  was  to  use 
it  as  a  clue  to  guide  them  through  the  hidden  labyrinths  of  the 
domestic  history  and  habits  of  their  favourites  ;  they  chose  some 
fitting  spot  in  the  vicinity  of  the  abodes  of  their  proteges,  and 
watched  and  chronicled  their  every  action,  until,  by  patient  wooing, 
they  at  length  succeeded  in  persuading  them  to  confess  the  hidden 
mysteries  of  their  avocations.  They  dealt  with  living  Nature,  not 
with  corpses,  and  their  rich  pages  testify  to  the  interesting  result 
of  their  researches. 

It  is  certainly  instructive  on  a  winter  evening  to  examine  with 
the  miscroscope  the  various  parts  of  a  butterfly,  and  investigate 
their  curious  structure  ;  but  it  is  in  the  early  morning,  when  the 
sun  shines  on  the  laughing  earth,  the  flowers  have  opened,  and  all 
Nature  smiles,  that  the  butterfly  is  to  be  seen  in  perfection,  fan- 
ning the  perfumed  air  with  wings  as  white  and  pure  as  are  the 
blossoms  of  the  lily  over  which  he  plays,  coquetting,  as  it  were, 
to  wake  the  jealousy  of  neighbouring  roses.  Is  it  coquetry,  or  is 
it  that  he  knows  not  where  to  choose  the  .sweetest  nectar  or  the 
prettiest  flower  ?  See !  how  he  now  advances,  now  retreats  ; 
returns  and  flutters  off  again,  and  then  pounces  down  on  a  fresh 
violet,  coyly  peeping  from  beneath  its  leaves.  And  now  the  little 
rover  takes  his  station,  with  a  touch  so  light  as  not  to  discompose 


i:\SECTS.  77 


the  perfumed  velvet  on  which  he  treads — his  wings  are  motion- 
less, and  raised  against  each  other.  Now  he  uncurls  his  wonderful 
proboscis,  and  begins  to  sip  the  nectar  offered  so  complacently, 
till,  satisfied,  away  he  flies,  and  Zephyr's  self  returning,  finds  no 
fold,  or  crease,  or  damage  done  to  indicate  the  robbery  com- 
mitted. Such  casual  glimpses  of  Creation's  charms  are  worth 
whole  cabinets  of  cork  and  pins. 

But  to  our  subject.  Let  us  first  inquire, — What  is  an  insect  ? 
In  a  German  vocabulary  that  happens  by  accident  to  be  open 
before  us,  under  the  general  name  of  "  Insects  "  we  find  grouped 
together  the  following  ill-assorted  selection, — "  Flies,  Spiders, 
Ants,  Scorpions,  Frogs,  Toads,  and  Lizards."  It  is,  therefore,  evi- 
dent that  the  word  "  insect "  is  made  use  of  in  ordinary  language 
in  a  very  vague  and  indeterminate  manner,  and  applied  indis- 
criminately to  very  various  animals.  Linnaeus,  it  is  true,  em- 
ployed it  to  designate  all  animals  provided  with  an  external 
skeleton,  divided  into  segments  (insccta),  in  which  sense  it  nearly 
corresponded  to  the  Cuvierian  expression  articulata,  jointed,  and 
thus  included  lobsters  and  crabs,  spiders  and  scorpions,  under  the 
same  designation.  In  the  restricted  sense  in  which  it  is  now  em- 
ployed, however,  it  includes  only  such  articulated  animals  as  in 
their  perfect  or  matured  state  are  recognizable  by  the  following 
characters,  whereby  they  are  distinguished  from  all  other  crea- 
tures. 

The  body  of  an  insect  is  divided  into  three  principal  portions, 
called  respectively,  the  head,  the  tJiorax,  and  the  abdomen. 

The  head  contains  the  apparatus  of  the  mouth,  and  instruments 
of  the  senses,  including  the  antennae  or  feelers,  which  are  invariably 
two  in  number. 

The  thorax,  formed  by  the  union  of  three  segments  of  the  ske- 
leton, supports  six  jointed  legs,  and  generally  four,  sometimes  tn'o 
li'ings.  These  last,  however,  are  frequently  wanting. 

The  abdomen  is  destitute  of  legs,  and  contains  the  viscera,  con- 
nected with  nutrition  and  reproduction. 

The  legs  of  insects,  as  above  stated,  are  invariably  six  in 
number,  one  pair  being  attached  to  each  of  the  segments  of  the 
thorax.  Considered  separately,  each  of  these  legs  is  made  up  of 
several  pieces,  which  well  deserve  our  notice.  The  first  division 
of  the  leg,  or  that  in  immediate  connection  with  the  thorax,  is 
called  the  hip  (coxa),  and  upon  this,  as  upon  a  centre,  the  move- 
ments of  the  limbs  are  performed.  To  the  extremity  of  the  coxa 
a  small  moveable  piece  is  attached,  called  the  trochantcr,  to  which 


INSECTS. 


succeeds  the  thigh  (femur),  which  is  the  thickest  and  most  robust 
of  all  the  divisions  of  the  limb.  The  next  piece,  called  the  shank 
(tibia),  is  occasionally  of  considerable  length,  and  is  connected 
with  the  last  by  a  hinge.  To  its  extremity  is  appended  the  foot 


FIG.  63. — KIND  LEG  OF  BEE. 


(tarsus),  composed  of  a  consecutive  series  of  small  segments,  vary- 
ing in  number  from  five  to  one,  the  last  of  which  is  armed  with 
claws,  or  other  appendages,  adapted  to  different  kinds  of  pro- 
gression. With  these  divisions  of  the  leg  it  is  necessary  that  the 
student  should  be  thoroughly  acquainted,  as  we  shall  again  and 


again  have  to  refer  to  them  hereafter. 


FIG.  69.— WING  OF  DRAGON-FLY. 

The  wings  of  insects,  when  present,  are  invariably  attached  to 
the  two  posterior  segments  of  the  thorax,  Avhich  are  strengthened 
in  every  possible  manner,  so  as  to  afford  a  support  of  sufficient 
density  and  firmness  to  sustain  the  violent  exertions  of  the 
muscles  employed  in  flight.  Few  things  are  met  with  in  Nature 
more  admirable  than  these  structures.  They  present,  indeed,  a 
combination  of  strength  and  lightness  absolutely  beyond  any- 
thing of  human  invention,  and  as  instruments  of  flight  they  much 
surpass  the  wings  of  birds,  both  in  the  power  and  precision  of 
their  movements. 

In  the  dragon-flies,  by  far  the  most  powerful  fliers  in  the  insect 
world,  all  four  wings  are  of  equal  size,  and  consist  of  a  thin  mem- 


INSECTS.  79 


branous  expansion  of  great  delicacy  and  of  glassy  appearance, 
supported  at  all  points  by  a  horny  network  (Fig.  69).  These  in- 
sects can  fly  in  all  directions,  backwards,  and  to  the  right  or  left, 
as  well  as  forwards,  with  equal  facility. 

The  substances  employed  as  food  by  insects  are  various  in 
proportion  to  the  extensive  distribution  of  the  class.  Some  de- 
vour the  leaves  of  vegetables,  or  feed  upon  grasses  or  succulent 
plants  ;  others  destroy  timber  and  the  bark  or  roots  of  trees ; 
while  some,  more  delicately  organized,  are  content  to  extract  the 
juices  of  the  expanding  buds,  or  sip  up  the  honied  fluids  from  the 
flowers.  Many  tribes  are  carnivorous  in  their  habits,  armed  with 
various  weapons  of  destruction,  and  carry  on  a  perpetual  warfare 
with  their  own  or  other  species;  and  again,  there  are  countless 
swarms  appointed  in  their  various  spheres  to  attack  all  dead  or 
putrefying  materials,  and  thus  aid  in  the  removal  of  substances 
which  by  their  accumulation  might  prove  a  constant  source  of 
annoyance  and  mischief.  Such  differences  in  their  nature  demand, 
of  course,  corresponding  diversity  in  the  construction  of  the  in- 
struments employed  for  procuring  nourishment ;  and  accordingly 
we  find  in  the  structure  of  the  mouths  of  these  little  beings  in- 
numerable modifications,  adapting  them  to  different  offices — jaws 
armed  with  strong  and  penetrating  hooks  for  seizing  and  securing 
struggling  prey ;  sharp  and  powerful  shears  for  clipping  and  di- 
viding the  softer  parts  of  vegetables ;  saws,  files,  and  augers  for 
excavating  and  boring  the  harder  parts  of  plants  ;  lancets  for 
piercing  the  skin  of  living  animals  ;  siphons  and  sucking-tubes  for 
imbibing  fluid  nutriment — all  these,  in  a  thousand  forms,  are  met 
with  in  the  insect  world,  and  thus  provide  them  with  the  means 
of  obtaining  food  adapted  to  their  habits,  and  even  of  construct- 
ing for  themselves  edifices  of  inimitable  workmanship. 


FIG.  70.  — PARTS  OF  THE  MOUTH  OF  AN  INSECT. 

The  mouths  of  insects  may  be  divided  into  two  great  classes, 
those  which  are  adapted  for  biting,  forming  what  is  called  &  per- 
fect or  vicuidibulatc  mouth,  and  those  which  are  so  constructed 
as  only  to  be  employed  in  sucking,  constituting  the  suctorial  or 
haustettate  mouth.  It  is  in  the  former  of  these  that  all  the  parts 
are  most  completely  developed.  The  perfect  mouth  of  an  insect 


8o 


INSECTS. 


consists  of  an  upper  and  an  under  lip,  and  four  horny  jaws.  The 
upper  lip  (labruiti)  (Figs.  70,  71,0)  is  a  convex  horny  plate,  placed 
transversely  across  the  upper  margin  of  the  cavity  in  which  the 
jaws  are  lodged,  so  that  when  the  mouth  is  shut,  it  folds  down  to 
meet  the  under  lip  (labium)  g\  and  these  two  pieces  more  or  less 
conceal  the  proper  jaws,  which  are  lodged  between  them. 

The  upper  pair  of  jaws  (mandibula},  b,  are  hard  and  powerful 
shears,  placed  immediately  beneath  the  upper  lip,  and  so  jointed 
to  the  cheeks  that  they  move  horizontally,  opening  and  shutting 
like  a  pair  of  scissors.  Their  concave  edge  is*  armed  with  strong 
denticulations  of  various  kinds,  sometimes  furnished  with  cutting 
edges,  that,  like  sharp  shears,  will  clip  and  divide  the  hardest- 


FIG.  71. — MOUTH  OF  A  BEETLE. 


FIG.  72. — VARIOUS  ANTENNAE. 


animal  and  vegetable  substances ;  sometimes  they  form  sharp 
and  pointed  fangs,  adapted  to  seize  and  pierce  their  victims  ;  and 
not  unfrequently  they  constitute  a  series  of  grinding  surfaces,  dis- 
posed like  the  molar  teeth  of  quadrupeds,  to  triturate  and  bruise 
the  materials  used  as  food.  The  variety  of  uses  to  which  these 
mandibles  can  be  turned  is  indeed  amazing.  In  the  carnivorous 
beetles  their  hooked  points,  more  formidable  than  the  teeth  of 
the  tiger,  penetrate  with  ease  the  mailed  covering  of  their  stoutest 
congeners,  and  in  the  dragon-fly  they  are  scarcely  less  formidable 
weapons  of  destruction.  In  the  locust  tribes  these  organs  are 
equally  efficient  agents  in  cutting  and  masticating  leaves  and 
vegetable  matters  adapted  to  their  appetites,  while  in  the  wasps 


INSECTS.  8 1 


and  bees  they  form  the  instruments  with  which  these  insects  build 
their  admirable  edifices,  and,  to  use  the  words  of  a  popular  author, 
supply  the  place  of  trowels,  spades,  pickaxes,  saws,  scissors,  and 
knives,  as  the  necessity  of  the  case  may  require.  Beneath  the 
mandibles  is  situated  another  pair  of  jaws,  c,  of  similar  construc- 
tion, but  generally  smaller,  and  less  powerful :  these  are  called 
the  maxilla.  The  lower  lip,  or  labium,  which  closes  the  mouth 
inferiorly,  consists  of  two  distinct  portions,  usually  described  as 
separate  organs  :  the  chin,  mcntiim,  that  really  forms  the  inferior 
border  of  the  mouth,  and  a  membranaceous  or  somewhat  fleshy 
organ,  reposing  upon  the  chin  internally,  and  called  the  tongue 
(lingua).  All  these  parts  enter  into  the  composition  of  the  per- 
fect mouth  of  an  insect,  and  from  the  numerous  varieties  that 
occur  in  their  shape  and  proportions,  they  become  important 
guides  to  the  entomologist  in  the  determination  and  distribution 
of  species. 

The  organs  of  sense  in  insects  are  distinct  and  well  developed, 
though  we  cannot  in  all  cases  precisely  determine  the  sensations 
of  which  they  are  the  channels.  Thus,  the  two  jointed  members 
called  antenna:,  that  project  from  the  head,  are  believed  by  some 
to  be  organs  of  touch,  by  others  to  convey  delicate  perceptions 
unknown  to  us,  and  by  the  generality  of  entomologists  are  con- 
sidered to  be  in  some  way  sensible  to  sound.  They  are  composed 
of  a  varying  number  of  rings,  sometimes  as  many  as  thirty,  set 
in  succession  ;  the  whole  constituting  a  tube,  and  enclosing  nerves, 
muscles,  and  air-pipes.  Their  form  is  exceedingly  varied  ;  and 
in  many  instances  they  are  ornamented  with  feather-like  beards, 
or  curiously  sculptured,  so  that  they  afford  useful  characters  for 
the  identification  of  the  multitudinous  genera  comprised  in  this 
Class. 

The  eyes  of  insects  present  some  interesting  peculiarities  of 
structure,  indicative,  no  doubt,  of  corresponding  diversities  in  the 
sense  of  vision,  of  which  we  must  ever  remain  ignorant.  Two 
distinct  kinds  of  eyes  are  possessed  by  these  animals,  both  kinds 
being  present  in  the  majority  of  species.  If  we  examine  the  head 
of  a  bee,  for  example,  we  find  a  large  convexity  on  each  side, 
which  a  magnifying  glass  discovers  to  be  composed  of  an  immense 
number  of  facets,  and  on  the  summit  of  the  head,  between  these, 
we  see  three  shining  points,  resembling  minute  gems,  set  in  a 
triangular  form.  The  former  are  termed  compound,  the  latter 
simple  eyes.  The  simple  eyes  consist  of  a  glassy  lens,  behind 
which  a  nervous  thread  is  spread  out,  forming  a  retina,  or  net- 

C 


82  INSECTS, 


work,  as  in  the  higher  animals,  to  receive  impressions  of  sight. 
The  structure  of  these  eyes  is  sufficiently  intelligible,  but  our 
admiration  is  greatly  excited  when  we  come  to  consider  the  large 
convex  organs  of  compound  vision,  and  find  that  each  of  these 
contains  many  thousands  of  eyes,  all  capable  of  distinct  percep- 
tion. The  microscope  reveals  to  us  that  the  compound  eye  of  an 
ant  contains  fifty  lenses,  that  of  a  fly  four  thousand,  that  of  a 
dragon-fly  twelve  thousand,  that  of  a  butterfly  seventeen  thou- 
sand, and  that  of  a  species  of  mordella  (a  kind  of  beetle)  the 


FIG.  73.— EVES  OF  BEE.  FIG.  74.— COMPOUND  EYE  OK  A  DRAGON-FLY. 

amazing  number  of  twenty-five  thousand.  Every  one  of  these 
regular,  polished,  and  many-sided  lenses  is  the  external  surface 
of  a  distinct  eye,  furnished  with  its  own  iris  and  pupil  and  a  per- 
fect nervous  apparatus,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  appended  figure 
representing  the  eye  of  a  dragon-fly  cut  perpendicularly  through 
the  middle.  As  the  eyes  of  insects  are  immoveably  fixed  in  the 
head,  it  is  probable  that  this  great  number  of  lenses  and  visual 
tubes  is  needful  to  see  different  objects,  some  or  other  of  the 
component  eyes  being  turned  towards  every  point. 

The  respiratory  system  of  insects  appears  to  be  constructed 
with  a  view  to  insure  a  perpetual  renewal  of  the  vitality  of  the 
blood,  combined  with  the  utmost  lightness,  so  needful  for  animals 
of  which  the  great  majority  are  denizens  of  the  air.  Hence  we 
find  neither  lungs  nor  gills,  but  a  series  of  tubes  pervading  every 
part  of  the  body,  by  which  the  vital  oxygen  is  carried  to  the  blood. 
If  we  examine  a  beetle,  a  grasshopper,  or  a  caterpillar,  we  shall 
observe  a  row  of  oval  openings  on  each  side,  capable  of  being  closed 
by  thickened  lips  (Fig.  75).  These  are  the  spiracles  or  breathing 
apertures,  for  no  insect  breathes  through  the  mouth :  they  admit 
the  air  into  main  trunks  which  run  along  each  side  of  the  body ; 


INSECTS. 


these  are  connected  by  smaller  branch  pipes,  which  run  across 
the  rings  of  the  abdomen,  and  distribute  an  infinite  number  of 
smaller  tubes  to  every  part  of  the  interior.  In  insects  of  great 
powers  of  flight,  there  are  likewise  reservoirs  of  air :  these  are 
particularly  large  in  the  bee.  One  circumstance  connected  with 
the  arrangements  of  the  air-tubes  specially  deserves  our  admi- 
ration. It  is  evident  that  the  sides  of  canals  so  slender  and  deli- 
cate would  inevitably  collapse  and  fall  together,  so  as  to  obstruct 
the  passage  of  the  air  they  are  destined  to  convey,  were  not  some 
plan  adopted  to  obviate  such  an  occurrence  ;  and  the  only  mode 


FIG.  75. — SPIRACLES.  OF  INSECTS. 


FIG.  76.  -AIR-PIPE  OF  FLY. 


of  providing  against  this  would  appear  to  be  to  make  their  walls 
stiff  and  inflexible.  Inflexibility  and  stiffness  would,  however, 
never  do  in  this  case,  where  the  tubes  in  question  have  to  be 
distributed  in  countless  ramifications  through  so  many  soft  and 
distensible  organs,  and  the  problem,  therefore,  is  how  to  maintain 
them  permanently  open  in  spite  of  external  pressure,  aud  still 
preserve  the  perfect  pliancy  and  softness  of  their  walls.  The 
mode  in  which  this  is  effected  is  as  follows  : — Between  the  two 
thin  layers  of  which  each  air-tube  consists,  an  elastic  thread  is 
interposed,  coiled  in  close  spirals,  of  sufficient  strength  and  firm- 
ness to  maintain  the  channel  always  pervious,  but  not  at  all  in- 
terfering with  its  flexibility ;  and  this  fibre,  delicate  as  it  is,  may 
be  traced  with  the  microscope  even  through  the  utmost  ramifica- 
tions of  the  air-tubes.  Wonderful  are  the  results  obtained  by  the 
adoption  of  this  new  arrangement.  Not  only  is  the  body  of  the 
insect  lightened  to  the  uttermost,  but  the  little  creature,  thus 
breathing  in  every  part,  has  its  vitality  so  intensified  that  it  is, 

G — 2 


84  INSECTS. 


in  proportion  to  its  bulk,  the  strongest  of  created  things — a  living 
railway  engine,  or  compared  with  which  a  railway  engine  is  a 
baby's  toy.  Insects  are  proverbially  of  small  dimensions.  Their 
presence  around  us  is  only  remarked  as  conferring  additional  life 
and  gaiety  on  the  landscape,  and  except  when  by  some  inordinate 
increase  in  their  numbers  they  make  up  by  their  multitude  for 
their  diminutive  size,  the  ravages  committed  by  them  are  trifling 
and  insignificant.  Far  otherwise  would  it  be  if  they  attained  to 
larger  growth,  and  still  possessed  the  extraordinary  strength  with 
which  they  are  now  so  conspicuously  gifted  :  they  would  then 
indeed  become  truly  the  tyrants  of  creation — monsters  such  "  as 
fables  never  feigned  nor  fear  conceived,"  fully  adequate  to  exter- 
minate from  the  surface  of  the  earth  all  that  it  contains  of  vege- 
table or  of  animal  existence.  A  common  flea  or  grasshopper  will 
spring  two  hundred  ^times  the  length  of  its  own  body,  which  is  as 
though  a  man  should  at  a  single  bound  leap  over  the  ball  and  cross 
of  St.  Paul's  cathedral.  The  dragon-fly  possesses  such  indomi- 
table strength  of  wing  that,  for  a  day  together,  it  will  sustain  itself 
in  the  air  and  fly  with  equal  facility  and  swiftness  backwards  or 
forwards,  to  the  right  or  to  the  left,  without  turning.  The  beetles 
are  encased  in  a  dense  and  hard  integument  impervious  to  ordi- 
nary violence ;  and  we  may  add  that  the  wasp  and  the  termite 
ant  will  penetrate  the  hardest  wood  with  their  jaws.  Neither  is 
the  velocity  of  the  movements  of  insects  inferior  to  their  prodigious 
muscular  power.  It  has  been  calculated  that  in  its  ordinary  flight 
the  common  house-fly  makes  with  its  wings  about  six  hundred 
strokes  in  a  second  of  time,  which  will  carry  it  a  distance  of  five 
feet,  but  if  alarmed  .its  velocity  can  be  increased  six  or  seven 
times,  or  to  thirty  or  thirty-five  feet  in  a  second.  In  this  space  of 
time  the  swiftest  race-horse  that  ever  trod  the  turf  could  clear  only 
ninety  feet,  which  is  at  the  rate  of  more  than  a  mile  in  a  minute. 
Compare  the  infinite  difference  in  the  size  of  the  two  animals  (ten 
millions  of  the  fly  would  hardly  counterpoise  one  racer),  and  how 
wonderful  will  the  velocity  of  the  little  insect  appear !  Did  the 
fly  equal  the  race-horse  in  size,  and  retain  its  present  powers  in 
the  ratio  of  its  magnitude,  it  would  traverse  the  globe  with  the 
rapidity  of  lightning. 

Let  the  reader,  therefore,  imagine  that  great  law  of  Nature, 
which  restricts  the  dimensions  of  an  insect  within  certain  bounds, 
dispensed  with  even  in  a  single  species.  Suppose  the  wasp  or  the 
stag-beetle  dilated  to  the  bulk  of  a  tiger  or  of  an  elephant,  cased 
in  impenetrable  armour — furnished  with  jaws  that  would  crush 


INSECTS.  85 


the  solid  trunk  of  an  oak — winged  and  capable  of  flight  so  rapid 
as  to  render  escape  hopeless  ; — what  could  resist  such  destroyers, 
or  how  could  the  world  support  their  ravages  ? 

Insects  may,  therefore,  be  regarded  in  the  light  of  engines,  so 
perfectly  adapted  to  the  work  intrusted  to  them,  that  to  increase 
or  diminish  their  size  would  be  to  unfit  them  for  the  duties  for 
which  they  are  specially  constructed,  and,  as  a  necessary  conse- 
quence, no  insect  iti  its  ringed  condition  can  be  permitted  to  grow  ; 
its  growth  must  be  effected  under  other  circumstances,  and  gene- 
rally under  a  form  quite  different  from  that  which  it  presents  in 


FIG.  77.— METAMORPHOSES  OF  BUTTERFLY. 

its  perfect  state.     Hence  arises  the  necessity  for  the  Metamor- 
phosis of  Insects. 

Most  insects  in  the  course  of  their  lives  are  subject  to  very  great 
changes  of  form,  attended  by  equally  remarkable  alterations  in 
their  habits  and  propensities.  These  transformations  or  mctamor- 
pJioses,  as  they  are  called,  quite  as  strange  as  any  we  read  of  in 
Ovid,  might  cause  the  same  insect,  at  different  ages,  to  be  mis- 
taken for  three  different  animals.  For  example,  a  caterpillar, 
after  feeding  upon  leaves  till  it  is  fully  grown,  retires  into  some 
place  of  concealment,  throws  off  its  caterpillar  skin,  and  presents 
itself  in  an  entirely  different  shape,  wherein  it  has  no  power  of 
moving  about  nor  of  taking  food.  In  this,  its  second  or  chrysalis 


86  INSECTS. 


state,  it  seems  to  be  lifeless,  having  neither  a  distinct  head  nor 
moveable  limbs, — after  a  lapse  of  time  the  chrysalis  skin  bursts 
open,  and  from  the  rent  issues  a  butterfly,  whose  wings,  soft  and 
crumpled  at  first,  soon  extend  and  harden,  and  become  fitted  to 
bear  away  the  insect  in  search  of  the  honied  juices  of  flowers. 
Hence  there  are  three  distinct  periods  in  the  life  of  an  insect,  more 
or  less  distinctly  marked.  In  the  first,  or  period  of  infancy,  an 
insect  is  technically  called  a  larva,  a  word  signifying  a  mask,  be- 
cause therein  its  future  form  is  more  or  less  masked  or  concealed. 
This  name  is  equally  applied  to  grubs,  caterpillars,  and  maggots, 
and  to  all  young  insects  before  their  wings  .begin  to  appear.  Con- 
sequently, in  this  first  period,  which  is  much  the  longest  portion 
of  their  lives,  insects  are  always  wingless,  pass  most  of  their  time 
in  eating,  grow  rapidly,  and,  to  allow  of  their  growth,  repeatedly 
cast  off  their  skins. 

During  the  second  period  some  insects  retain  their  activity  and 
their  appetite  for  food,  continue  to  grow  and  acquire  the  rudi- 
ments of  wings ;  while  others,  at  this  age,  entirely  lose  their  larva 
form,  take  no  food,  and  remain  at  rest  in  a  death-like  sleep.  This 
is  called  the  pupa  *  state  of  the  insect,  because  in  this  condition 
they  resemble  an  infant  wrapped  in  swaddling-bands.  The  pupae 
from  caterpillars  are  more  commonly  called  chrysalids,  because 
some  of  them,  as  the  name  implies,  are  gilt  or  adorned  with  golden 
spots,  whereas  pupae  that  retain  their  legs  and  capability  of  loco- 
motion are  often  named  nymphs,  the  reason  for  which  is  not  very 
obvious. 

At  the  end  of  the  second  period  insects  again  shed  their  skin, 
and  come  forth  fully  grown,  and  (with  few  exceptions)  provided 
with  wings.  They  thus  enter  upon  their  last  or  adult  state,  wherein 
they  no  longer  increase  in  size,  and  during  which  they  provide 
for  their  progeny.  This  period  only  lasts  a  short  time,  for  most 
insects  die  immediately  after  they  have  laid  their  eggs.  Bees, 
wasps,  and  ants,  however,  which  live  in  society,  and  labour  to- 
gether for  the  common  good, .continue  much  longer  in  the  adult 
state. 

The  innumerable  races  of  insects  may  be  classified  in  accord- 
dance  with  the  following  table  : 


*  Pupa,  a  baby.     Those  who  have  seen  infants  in  many  parts  of  the  Continent  tied 
tight  to  a  board,  will  appreciate  the  appropriateness  of  the  expression. 


INSECTS, 


& 

!r-, 

ON 

"~* 

1-Ti 

CO 

A 

-^T 

CJ 

cf 

<£ 

s 

S 

eg" 

* 

CD 

+3 

d, 

<D 
+> 

ex 

= 

Homopt 

Strepsip 

Diptora, 

.& 

i 
& 

St 

Parasita, 

Thysano 

88  COLEOPTERA. 


SHIELD-WINGED  INSECTS.    ORDER  COLEOPTERA. 

The  Coleopterous  insects  are  characterized  by  having  four 
wings,  of  which  the  anterior  pair,  always  hard  or  leathery  in  their 
texture,  form  two  strong  shields,  beneath  which  the  hinder  pair 
are  lodged  and  protected.  The  front  wings,  or  elytra*  when  in 
repose,  are  always  united  by  a  straight  edge  extending  along  their 
whole  length.  The  hinder  wings,  which  alone  are  adapted  for 
flight,  are  much  larger  than  the  elytra,  and  when  not  in  use,  are 
folded  transversely  ;  in  a  few  species  they  are  wanting,  and  then 
the  elytra  are,  as  it  were,  soldered  together.  The  tegumentary 
envelope  of  these  insects  is  always  remarkably  hard,  and  forms  a 
very  substantial  suit  of  armour.  Their  mouth  is  constructed  for 
the  mastication  of  food,  and  is  provided  with  a  pair  of  strong 
mandibles,  a  pair  of  maxillae  bearing  palpi,  and  a  labium  or  lower 
lip  also  bearing  palpi.  The  abdomen  is  sessile,  that  is,  is  broadest 
at  the  place  where  it  joins  the  thorax. 

The  metamorphosis  which  the  Coleoptera  undergo  is  complete. 
The  larva  resembles  a  worm  ;  its  body  is  soft,  with  the  exception 
of  the  head  and  the  first  segments  of  the  body,  which  are  of  a 
horny  consistence  ;  it  is  generally  furnished  with  three  pairs 
of  horny  legs,  attached  to  the  three  first  rings,  but  sometimes 
these  are  replaced  by  fleshy  tubercles  ;  there  is,  however,  never 
a  greater  number  than  six  of  these  appendages.  The  pupa  is 
motionless  and  takes  no  food,  its  limbs  being  swathed  together  by 
the  external  integument  ;  it  is  generally  enclosed  in  a  shell  or 
cocoon,  composed  of  different  substances  joined  together  by  a 
viscid  silky  material  ;  sometimes  it  is  naked.  This  is  by  far  the 
most  numerous  of  all  the  insect  orders  :  the  number  of  species 
already  known  is  probably  not  much  less  than  fifty  thousand.  In 
order,  therefore,  more  readily  to  arrange  such  a  multitude,  they 
are  divided  into  four  sections,  according  to  the  number  of  joints 
or  articulations  entering  into  the  composition  of  their  feet  (tarsi]. 
The  sections  so  formed  are  as  follows  : 

1.  The  Pentamerans,t  in  which  the  tarsi  of  all  the  legs  arc 
composed  of  five  joints. 

2.  The  Heteromerans,  J  in  which  the  tarsi  have  five  joints  on 
the  tivo  anterior  pairs  of  legs,  and  only  four  on  the  hindmost  pair. 


*  L\vrpGv,  elytron,  a  case.  f  Tr^re,  pente,y?z^;  /ufyos,  meros,  a  joint. 

Jc'repoj,  eteros,  various  ;  //.<^>os,  meros,  a  joint. 


TIGER  BEETLES.  89 


3.  The  Tetramerans,  *  in  which  the  tarsi  of  all  the  legs  have 
four  articulations. 

4.  The  Trimerans,  t  in  which  all  the  tarsi  have  only  three 
ioints. 

SECTION   OF    PEXTAMEKAXS. 

The  first  division  of  Coleoptera,  having  five  joints  in  all  their 
tarsi,  are  the  most  active  and  highly  gifted  of  the  race,  and  may 
be  considered  as  the  lions  and  tigers  of  the  insect  world  :  they 
constitute  the  family  of  Carnivora,  1  and  are  distinguished  by 
having  two  palpi  on  each  maxilla. 

These  beetles  in  their  perfect  state  pursue  and  devour  other  in- 
sects; their  larvae  also  have  similar  habits.  Among  them  we  find 

The  Tiger  Beetles  (Cicindda}\.  which  are  excellent  representatives  of 
the  quadruped  whose  name  they  bear  ;  conspicuously  the  most  rapacious  and 
bloodthirsty  of  the  race  ;  equally  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  their  colours, 
their  extreme  activity,  and  savage  propensities.  They  run  with  considerable 
swiftness,  and  take  wing  the  moment  they  are  approached  ;  but  they  alight 
again  at  a  short  distance.  They  are  commonly  met  with  in  the  heat  of  sum- 
mer upon  heaths  and  in  other  dry,  sunny  situations.  Their  larva.'  excavate 
cylindrical  burrows  in  the  ground',  which  are,  many  of 
them,  upwards  of  a  foot  in  depth:  in  the  construction 
of  these  dens  they  exhibit  extraordinary  ingenuity  — 
loosening  the  earth  by  means  of  their  powerful  jaws, 
and  carrying  it  to  the  surface  upon  their  broad  heads. 
They  have  hooks  upon  their  backs,  which  assist  them 
in  climbing  to  the  top  of  their  excavation,  much  in  the  FIG.  78. 

same  way  as  a  chimney-sweep  climbs  a  chimney.  Their  LARVA  OF  TIGEK  BEETLE. 
hole  being  completed,  they  station  themselves  just 

within  its  entrance,  where  they  lie  in  wait  for  any  poor  passing  insect  traveller, 
which  is  instantly  seized  and  dragged  to  the  bottom  of  the  cave,  there  to  bo 
devoured. 

The  Ground  Beetles  (Carabus}\\  are  scarcely  less  active  than  the  fore- 
going, or  less  carnivorous  in  their  habits  :  many  of  them  are  constantly  em- 
ployed in  prowling  about  upon  the  surface  of  the  ground  in  search  of  insect 
prey,  lurking  in  the  day-time  under  stones  and  other  similar  places  of  con- 
cealment, and  carrying  on  an  unrelenting  warfare  against  innumerable  noxious 
insects,  the  destructiveness  of  which  they  materially  assist  in  diminishing. 
Among  these  marauding  beetles,  the  most  remarkable  are 

The  Bombardiers  (Brachintis\  as  they  are  not  inappositely  named,  several 
species  being  provided  with  a  means  of  defence  unparalleled  among  the  lower  animals. 
Of  all  the  inventions  which  mankind  seems  fairly  entitled  to  claim  as  being  exclusively 
of  human  contrivance,  perhaps  that  of  guns  and  gunpowder  might  be  deemed  the  most 
original;  yet  even  in  this,  strange  to  say,  he  has  been  forestalled.  The  little  bombardier 
beetles  possessed  an  artillery  of  their  own  long  before  the  fields  of  Crecy  first  trembled  at 


*  rerpa?,  tetras,  four  ;  /j-epos.  meros,  a  joint.          f  rpetj,  treis,  three;  /ifyos,  meros,  a  joint. 

+  Caro,  carnis,  flesh  ;  voro,  I  eat.  §  Cicindela,  a  shining  insect. 

||  Ka.pa.fios,  carabos,  a  beetle. 


9o 


COLEOPTERA. 


the  unaccustomed  roar  of  slaughtering  cannon,  as  any  one  \vill  allow  who  may  inadver- 
tently lay  hold  of  one  of  these  living  batteries.  It  is  quite  true  that  neither  powder 
nor  ball  is  needed  by  the  insect  cannoneer  ;  but  th^re  is  the  flash,  the  smoke,  and  the 
report,  and  although 

be  wanting,  its  place  is  most  efficiently  supplied  by  a  burning  drop,  so  caustic  in  its 
nature  as  to  be  only  comparable  to  nitric  acid. 

Sternly  and  unremittingly  is  the  work  of  destruction  intrusted 
to  these  carnivorous  beetles  carried  on  by  night  and  by  day,  with- 
out remorse  or  respite ;  and  were  we  to  reflect  for  a  moment,  we 
should  soon  perceive  how  indispensable  is  their  murderous  zeal  to 
the  order  and  wellbeing  of  surrounding  Nature. 

The  active  operations  of  these  destroyers  are  not,  however,  re- 
stricted to  the  land.  Many  species  are  inhabitants  of  the  water, 
and  in  that  element  have  their  assigned  tasks  to  perform.  Neither 
are  their  bloodthirsty  propensities  only  manifested  during  their 
mature  or  winged  state  ;  from  their  earliest  birth  they  are  tutored 
to  the  work  of  destruction,  and  their  very  infancy  is  devoted  to 
carnage. 

The  Water-Beetles  (Dyticus}* .  exhibit,  in  a  very  striking  manner,  the 
facility  with  which,  by  a  slight  modification  in  their  form  and  arrangements, 
the  limbs  of  an  insect  become  convertible  to  the  most  opposite  uses.  The 
body  of  the  Dyticus,  oval  in  its  shape,  and  slightly 
flattened  above  and  below,  is  converted  into  a 
boat,  so  smooth  and  polished  in  every  part,  that 
it  glides  through  the  water  with  scarcely  the 
slightest  resistance,  while  the  two  hinder  pairs 
of  legs  are  changed  into  oars  of  a  most  effective 
and  elegant  construction.  Thus  limbed,  the  Dy- 
ticus is  fully  equipped  for  its  piratical  mode  of 
life,  and  becomes  an  object  of  no  little  interest 
in  the  water  over  which  it  tyrannizes.  Some- 
times lurking  beneath  the  weeds,  it  may  be  seen 
creeping  stealthily  about  in  search  of  some  victim 
to  seize  by  surprise  ;  sometimes  launching  its 
skiff  upon  predatory  excursions,  the  little  corsair 
sweeps  along  by  means  of  its  oars  with  wonder- 
ful rapidity — coming  every  now  and  then  to  the 
surface  of  the  water  to  breathe,  and  diving  again 
into  the  depths  below— carrying  with  it  a  supply 
of  air  beneath  its  wing-covers  to  serve  for  respira- 
tion during  its  immersion. 

The  young  of  these  water-beetles  are  as  active  and  ferocious  as  the  adult 
insects,  although  widely  differing  in  point  of  form.  These  larvae,  not  inappro- 
priately distinguished  by  the  name  of  "  water-tigers,"  have  some  resemblance 
to  a  Scolopendra,  being  composed  of  a  succession  of  scaly  rings,  and  they  are, 


FIG.  79. — WATER-BEETLE. 


js,  dyticos,  dirin-. 


U'A  TER-BEETLES. 


FIG.  Co.— LAKVA  OF  DYTICI'S. 

moreover,  furnished  with  six  strong  and  well-jointed  legs,  by  means  of  which 
they  run  about  with  considerable  rapidity.  The  head,  which  is  attached  to 
the  body  by  a  flexible  neck,  is  broad,  and  composed  of  strong  horny  plates, 
adapted  to  support  the  formidable  jaws,  which  are  powerful  hooked  fangs, 
moving  laterally,  and  so  sharp  that  woe  betide  the  unfortunate  creature  upon 
which  they  lay  hold.  Thus  armed,  these  butchers  Jive  upon  other  aquatic 
animals,  upon  which  they  rush  with  all  the  vivacity  of  a  shark  or  pike,  not 
sparing  even  individuals  of  their  own  species.  After  having  several  times 
cast  their  skin,  these  larva?  prepare  to  assume  their  pupa  state  ;  for  that  pur- 
pose they  creep  out  of  the  water,  and  bury  themselves  in  the  moist  earth  in 
the  vicinity  of  their  native  pond — each  scooping  out  for  itself  an  oval  cavity 
wherein  to  pass  the  assigned  time  of  helplessness  and  inactivity.  (Fig.  80,  b.) 

Some  naturalists  are  pleased  to  find  in  the  rapacious  race  of 
beetles,  the  representatives  of  the  eagles  and  the  falcons  among 
the  feathered  tribes  :  both  are  equally  organized  to  combat  and 
to  kill — both  strike  at  living  game,  and  consequently  must  stand 
pre-eminent  in  strength  and  courage.  But,  as  amongst  the  flesh- 
devouring  birds,  species  exist  possessing  more  ignoble  attributes, 
not  formed  for  open  battle,  but  content  to  appease  their  ravenous 
appetites  with  carrion  and  such  offal,  so  among  the  insects  nume- 
rous tribes  exist,  whose  prey  is  garbage,  and  whose  whole  employ- 
ment seems  to  be  to  search  for  and  remove  the  dead  remains  of 
other  animals.  Everywhere  these  scavengers  are  busy  :  some 
frequent  the  muddy  margins  of  our  pools  and  ditches,  eagerly  in 


92  COLEOPTERA. 

quest  of  rotten  prey ;  others  prefer  the  land,  where  they  seek  out 
with  unremitting  diligence  whatever  from  decay  begins  to  taint 
the  air ;  while  some,  the  very  sextons  of  creation,  bury  whole  the 
carcases  they  meet  with,  and  thus  vigorously  assist  in  carrying 
out  the  sanitary  laws  of  Nature.  To  these  scavengers  belong 

The  Brachelytrous*  Pentamerans.  These  have  only  one  pal- 
pus on  each  maxilla  ;  their  wing-cases  are  much  shorter  than  their 
bodies,  which  are  generally  narrow  and  elongated.  They  include 

The  Rova  Beetles  (Staphilinus),  well  known  to  every  schoolboy  by  their 
turned-up  tails  and  threatening  jaws,  with  which  they  menace  their  assailants. 
They  generally  take  up  their  abode  in  the  earth,  in  the  vicinity  of  dunghills, 
or  of  rotten  trees,  or  anywhere  in  the  neighbourhood  of  rottenness  and  decay ; 
they  are  all  exceedingly  voracious,  run  very  quickly,  and  take  flight  upon  the 
least  alarm.  Their  bodies  are  generally  jet  black,  and  they  diffuse  an  intoler- 
able odour.  The  larvae  have  the  same  habits  as  the  perfect  insects,  from  which, 
except  from  the  circumstance  that  they  have  no  wings,  they  are  scarcely  dis- 
tinguishable. 

The  third  tribe  of  Coleopterous  Pentamerans  are  named  Serri- 
COrnes.t  They  are  distinguished  by  the  shape  of  their  antennae, 
which  are  very  long  and  generally  toothed  like  a  saw.  Among 
these  are 

The  Gold  Beaters  (Bttprcstis)  J,  conspicuous  from  their  size  and  the  magni- 
ficence of  their  colours,  which  sometimes  resemble  polished  gold  upon  a  field 
of  emerald,  or  blaze  with  every  tint  of  blue  and  green,  purple  and  scarlet,  mixed 
with  metallic  gleams  of  gorgeous  brilliance.  These  beetles  are  all  vegetable 
feeders  ;  they  walk  slowly,  but  their  flight  is  rapid,  especially  in  hot  and  dry 
weather.  When  any  one  attempts  to  seize  them,  they  fall  to  the  earth.  A  few 
small  species  may  be  met  with  on  flowers,  but  they  generally  frequent  forests 
and  the  vicinity  of  trees.  The  females  lay  their  eggs  in  dead  dry  wood,  in 
which  the  larvae  excavate  long  winding  passages,  wherein  they  undergo  their 
metamorphoses. 

The  Spring  Beetles  (Elater}  §  are  remarkable  from  their  faculty  of  spring- 
ing into  the  air  when  laid  upon  their  backs,  in  which  position,  owing  to  the 
shortness  of  their  legs,  they  would  otherwise  be  completely  unable  to  rise. 
The  most  celebrated  among  them  is 

The  CuCUJO  (Elater  noctilitcns},  which  has  upon  each  side  of  the  back  of  its  thorax 
a  smooth  convex  round  spot,  from  which  at  night  there  issues  a  light  so  brilliant  that 
by  its  assistance  it  is  easy  to  read  the  smallest  print,  more  especially  if  several  of  these 
insects  are  put  together  in  a  glass  vessel.  By  the  light  thus  afforded,  the  Brazilian 
iadies  are  able  to  embroider  ;  and  not  unfrequently  they  twine  these  living  lamps  among 
their  hair  to  light  them  in  their  evening  promenade.  The  Indians  fasten  them  to  their 
mocassins,  and  thus  illuminate  their  path.  A  merchant  ship  once  accidentally  brought 
one  to  Paris  in  some  wood,  wherein  it  had  passed  its  larva  state,  and  astonished  the 
inhabitants  of  the  Faubourg  St.  Antoine  by  a  display  of  its  brilliant  light — an  exhibition 
for  which  they  were  but  little  prepared.  Nearly  allied  to  these  are 

0 Bpaxfa,  brachus,  short;  2\vrpov,  elutron,  win^-coi'cr.  f  Serra,  a  saw;  cornu,  a 

horn;  i.e.,  antenna. 
%  8ofarp-r)<TTis,  bouprestis,  an  insect  said  to  poison  cq/tic.         §  eXarrip,  elater,  a  leaper. 


DBA  TH-  WA  TCHES.  93 


The  Glow-Worms  (Lampyris)*  likewise  distinguished  by  their  capabi- 
lity of  emitting  phosphorescent  light.  The  males  of  our  common  species  are 
not  particularly  remarkable,  but  the  females,  which  are  without  wings,  are 
highly  luminous.  The  light  which  they  emit  issues  from  the  hinder  part  of 
i heir  abdomen,  and  the  insect  can  vary  its  intensity  at  pleasure.  This  faculty 
of  emitting  light  is  one  of  the  most  puzzling  circumstances  in  their  history — 
nor  is  it  easy  to  conjecture  what  end  it  serves.  The  suggestion,  frequently 
advanced,  that  its  purpose  is  to  guide  the  winged  male  to  the  apterous  female 
in  the  darkness  of  the  night,  is  by  no  means  a  satisfactory  explanation  ;  for, 
besides  the  fact  that  other  nocturnal  insects  need  no  such  aid,  in  many  species 
of  the  genus  both  sexes  are  luminous,  and  both  furnished  with  wings.  The 
light  of  these  foreign  species — as,  for  example,  the  Lucciole  of  Italy,  and  the 
Fire-flies  of  North  America — far  surpasses  the  feeble  glimmer  of  our  own,  and 
when  the  air  is  filled  with  myriads  of  them  intersecting  each  other's  path  in 
every  direction,  the  scene  is  one  of  indescribable  beauty. 

The  Death- Watches  (Ptimis}^  are  a  race  of  small  insects,  often  for- 
midable on  account  of  the  ravages  they  commit  upon  our  property.     Many 
species  of  this  genus  inhabit  the  interior  of  our  houses, 
\vherek  in  their  larva  condition,  they  cause  much  damage 
by  boring  into  wood.    Nothing  of  a  vegetable  nature  comes 
amiss  to  them — planks,  rafters,  beams,  chairs,  and  tables, 
and  even  books,  all  fall  a  prey  to  their  hungry  industry: 
they  bore  them  through  and  through  with  holes  as  sharply 
cut  as  if  they  had  been  drilled  with  the  finest  instruments. 
Some  devote   their   special  energies  to  farinaceous   sub- 
stances, and  devour  the  very  wafers  in  our  desks ;  others, 
more  formidable  still  to  the  naturalist,  attack  our  collec-      FlG  8l  _DEM-H- 
nons  of  birds  and  insects,  and  commit  sad  havoc  in  our       WATCH  UEETLK. 
j.-useums. 

In  some  species  both  sexes,  by  way  of  calling  their  mates,  are  in  the  habit 
f.f  rapping  sharply  and  quickly  with  their  mandibles  upon  the  wood  that  they 
irequent,  and  replying  to  each  other  in  the  same  manner.  Ihe  noise  thus 
produced,  which  somewhat  resembles  the  ticking  of  a  watch,  has  gained  for 
them,  from  the  ignorant  and  superstitious,  the  name  of  the  "  Death-watch/' 
by  which  they  are  familiarly  known. 

The  fourth  tribe  of  Coleopterous  Pentamerans  is  distinguished 
by  having  the  antennae  dilated  towards  their  extremity,  or  club- 
shaped,  hence  they  have  received  the  name  of  Clavicornes.* 
They  all,  in  their  larva  condition,  devour  animal  substances,  but 
the  perfect  insects  seem  to  indulge  in  a  more  general  diet.  They 
are  the  living  dust-carts  of  creation,  and  nothing  is  too  despicable 
or  too  offensive  for  their  appetite.  Among  them  we  need  only 
mention 

The  Carrion  Beetles  (Silpha\\  which  live  exclusively  on  putrefying 
carrion,  and 

The  Sexton  Beetles  (Necrophorus]:\  whose  duty  is  to  bury  and  get  rid 

*  \a/j.iri'pis,  lampuris,  a  glffw-morm.  ~\~  TTTCVOS,  ptenos,  wtMgfd. 

+  Clava,  a  club  ;  cornu,  a  horn;  i.e.,  antenna.          §  ai\<pTj,  silphe,  a  black  beetle 
||  vfKpos,  necros,  dead  body  ;  05/9os,  phoros,  carrying. 


94  COLEOPTERA. 

of  anything  that  might  pollute  the  air.  Urged  by  a  remarkable  instinct,  no 
sooner  do  they  find  the  carcase  of  a  bird,  a  mouse,  a  frog,  a  mole,  or  any  other 
small  animal,  than  they  glide  beneath  it,  and  proceed  to  dig  away  the  earth 
until  they  make  a  grave  for  its  reception ;  having  accomplished  this,  they  lay 
their  eggs  upon  the  buried  body,  and  covering  up  the  little  sepulchre,  depart. 
When  the  eggs  are  hatched,  the  larvae,  furnished  with  strong  jaws,  devour  the 
carcase  which  supplies  their  food.  When  about  to  assume  the  nymph  con- 
dition, they  bury  themselves  still  more  deeply  in  the  earth,  and  there  construct 
a  chamber  lined  with  a  tenacious  slime,  in  which  they  undergo  their  final 
change. 

Other  races,  still  faithful  to  their  duty,  eagerly  attack  whatever 
they  can  find  that  is  bereft  of  life. 

The  Bacon  Beetles  (Dermestes  lardarius)  even  invade  our  larders  to 
regale  on  rancid  hams  or  bacon ;  furs,  woollen  stuffs,  the  skins  of  birds,  the 
treasured  specimens  in  our  museums,  all  become  their  prey — they  make  no 
nice  distinctions.  What  is  dead  they  claim,  and  do  not  wait  for  man's  per- 
mission. 

The  fifth  tribe  of  Coleopterous  Pentamerans  includes  the  Palpi- 
cornes,  which,  although  nearly  related  to  the  preceding,  are 
principally  aquatic  in  their  habits. 

The  Large  "Water-Beetles  (HydropJiilus)  *  belong  to  this  group.  They 
swim  and  fly  equally  well,  but  walk  upon  the  ground  with  difficulty.  Their 
breast  is  armed  with  a  sharp  spine,  a  weapon  that  occasionally  lacerates  the 
hand  of  those  who  handle  them  incautiously.  The  females  are  provided  with 
two  spinnarets  with  which  they  form  an  oval  cocoon,  wherein  their  eggs  are 
arranged  with  much  regularity,  packed  up  in  a  kind  of  white  down.  These 
cocoons  may  sometimes  be  observed  floating  upon  ponds.  Their  larva  differs 
widely  in  its  structure  from  that  of  the  Dyticus,  with  which  these  insects  were 
long  confounded  :  it  is  provided  with  a  horny  head,  which  it  is  able  to  turn 
back  over  its  body,  a  faculty  that  permits  it  to  use  its  back  as  a  kind  of  table 
whereon  it  cracks  the  shells  of  little  water-snails  that  constitute  its  usual  food. 
In  some  species  the  females  carry  their  eggs  in  a  silken  bag  attached  to  their 
abdomen. 

The  sixth  and  last  tribe  of  the  Coleopterous  Pentamerans  is  that 
of  the  Lamellicornes,  t  distinguished  by  having  their  antennae 
terminated  by  a  packet  of  narrow  flat  plates  or  lamella*,  arranged 
like  the  rays  of  a  fan  or  the  leaves  of  a  book.  They  all  live  upon 
vegetable  substances,  and  some  are  of  large  size ;  their  bodies 
are  massive,  their  flight  slow,  and  their  gait  heavy  and  tortoise- 
like. 

Their  larvae  are  so  fat  and  clumsy  that  they  are  unable  to  walk, 
or  do  so  with  difficulty.  They  lie  upon  their  sides  and  devour  the 
vegetation  that  immediately  surrounds  them  (Fig.  82),  and  some 
of  them  live  in  this  state  for  three  or  four  years.  They  pass  their 

*  u5w/>,  uclor,  water;  0iXos,  philos,  loving,     t  Lamella,  a  leaf;  cornu,  a  horn  or  antenna. 


SCAVENGER  BEETLES. 


95 


FIG   82. — COCKCHAFER  AND  LARVA. 


nymph  condition  bu- 
ried in  the  earth,  from 
which  they  slowly 
crawl  when  their  me- 
tamorphosis is  com- 
pleted. We  select  one 
or  two  familiar  ex- 
amples as  illustrative  of  the  habits  of  this  immense  group. 

The  Scavenger  Beetles  (Geotrupcs]  are  among  the  most  useful  insects 
met  with  in  tropical  cMmates :  no  sooner  is  the  presence  of  filth  announced  by 
its  scent,  than  the  scavengers  are  heard  coming  booming  up  the  wind,  and 
roll  it  away  at  once  in  large  pieces  as  big  as  billiard-balls,  and  when  they 
reach  a  place  proper  by  its  softness  for  the  deposit  of  their  eggs  and  the 
safety  of  their  young,  they  dig  the  soil  out  from  beneath  the  ball,  till  they 
have  quite  let  it  down  and  covered  it.  They  then  lay  their  eggs  within  the 
mass.  While  the  larvae  are  growing,  they  devour  the  inside  of  the  ball  before 
coming  aboveground.  These  beetles,  with  their  gigantic  balls,  look  like  Atlas 
.  with  the  world  on  his  back,  only  they  go  backwards  and  with  their  heads  down, 
push  with  their  hind  legs,  as  if  a  boy  should  roll  a  snow-ball  with  his  legs  while 
standing  on  his  head. — DR.  LIVINGSTONE. 


FIG.  83.— THE  GOLIATH  BEETLE  AND  HERCITLES  BEETLE. 


The  Lamellicorn  beetles  embiace  some  of  the  largest  of  the 
insect    race,  equally  remarkable  for  their  size  and   prodigious 


96  COLEOPTERA. 


strength, — hence  such  names  as  Goliath,  Hercules,  Samson,  &c., 
are  pretty  freely  conferred  upon  them. 


SECTION   OF   HETEROMERANS. 

\Vc  now  arrive  at  the  second  great  section  of  the  Coleoptera — 
namely,  the  Heteromerans — distinguished  by  having  five  joints 
on  the  tarsi  of  each  of  the  two  front  pairs  of  legs,  but  only  four 
on  the  two  hind  ones.  They  are  all,  without  exception,  vegetable 
feeders  ;  and  it  may  be  said  that  every  plant  has  appropriate 
inhabitants  selected  from  their  numerous  hosts 

First  of  this  extensive  series  we  must  notice  the  Melasomes,* 
remarkable  as  a  group  from  the  circumstance  of  their  bodies  being 
almost  invariably  black,  and  thus  adapted  to  the  nocturnal  habits 
of  the  generality  of  the  species.  Many  of  them  are  wingless. 
Others,  provided  with  wings,  are  frequently  met  with,  especially 
towards  night,  in  unfrequented  parts  of  our  houses  ;  they  abound 
in  bakers'  shops,  corn-mills,  and  wherever  farinaceous  food  is  ob- 
tainable ;  they  are  likewise  frequently  to  be  met  with  in  old  walls, 
and  in  other  out-of-the-way  situations.  As  a  sample  of  the  group 
we  may  mention 

The  Meal-grinders  (Tencbrio  molitor},  whose  larvae,  under  the  name  of 
meal-worms,  are  found  abundantly  in  bran  and  flour,  which  they  devour  in 
great  quantities,  and  wherein  they  undergo  their  metamorphosis.  These 
grubs,  being  easily  obtainable,  are  given  as  food  to  nightingales  and  other 
small  birds. 

A  second  numerous  family  is  that  of  the  Taxicornes,  t  so 
called  from  the  regularly  beaded  structure  of  their  antennae. 
These  are  generally  found  upon  decaying  fungi,  such  as  grow 
upon  old  trees,  or  else  they  lurk  beneath  the  bark,  while  others 
live  upon  the  ground  or  under  stones. 

The  StenelytraJ  form  the  next  division.  Many  of  these  in- 
habit trees,  creeping  beneath  the  bark,  where,  too,  their  progeny 
is  reared,  while  some  are  only  found  on  flowers,  or  are  appropriate 
to  different  kinds  of  fungi  or  of  mushrooms. 

The  Trachelides,  §  distinguished  by  the  length  and  size  of 
their  necks,  are  likewise  found  on  plants,  of  which  they  eat  the 
leaves  or  suck  the  nectar  from  their  flower-bells  ;  many  of  them 
are  remarkable  for  shamming  death  as  soon  as  they  are  seized  or 


*  fj.^\as,  melas,  black ;  <r&fj.a,  soma,  body.         f  rd£ts,  taxis,  regularity ;  cornu,  a  horn 

or  antenna. 
'js,  stenos,  narronu;  2\vrpov,  elutron,  iuing-cover.     §  rpc^Xos,  trachelos,  the  neck. 


SNOUT  BEETLES. 


97 


feel  themselves  to  be  subjects  of  observation.  Hundreds  of  these 
are  seen  in  summer-time  in  every  garden,  known  by  their  thin 
elytra,  slender  limbs,  and  pretty  tints,  to  be  the  fit  concomitants  of 
flowers.  Among  the  most  remarkable  examples  of  the  group  are 

The  Blister  Beetles  (Cantharis},  valuable  from  their  great  utility  in 
medicine.  These  little  insects,  as  is  well  known,  contain  a  peculiar  irritating 
matter,  which  when  applied  to  the  human  skin  has  the  property  of  producing 
a  blister.  They  are  of  a  golden  green  colour,  and  are  very  common  in  France, 
Italy,  Spain,  and  Russia,  where  they  feed  upon  the  leaves  of  the  ash,  the  lily, 
and  tne  privet.  The  "  Potato  Fly  "  (Cantharis  vittata)  is  an  American  species, 
which  possesses  qualities  similar  to  the  European,  for  which  it  forms  an 
efficient  substitute. 

SECTION   OF  TETRAMERANS. 

The  third  great  section  of  the  Coleoptera  includes  all  those 
beetles  that  have  only  four  joints  in  the  tarsi  of  all  their  legs.  It 


FlG.  85.  —  COM'ER-COLOURED  WEEVIL. 


FIG.  86.— NUT-WEEVIL. 


embraces  an  immense  host,  which,  however,  have  the  following 
characters  in  common.  They  all  live  upon  vegetable  substances. 
Their  larvae  have  very  short  legs,  or  in  some  instances  legs  are 
entirely  wanting,  their  place  being  supplied  by  little  fleshy  tu- 
bercles. The  perfect  insect  frequents  the  flowers  or  leaves  of  plants. 
First  and  most  conspicuous  among  this  extensive  group  are 

7 


98 


COLEOPTERA. 


The  Snout  Beetles  (Rhyncophora}*  at  once  recognizable  by  the  shape 
of  their  head,  which  is  prolonged  into  a  sort  of  snout  or  proboscis,  upon  which 
are  placed  the  antennas.  Their  larvae  resemble  soft  little  white  worms,  fur- 
nished with  a  scaly  head,  but  quite  destitute  of  legs.  They  all  devour  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  vegetables,  and  some  are  found  only  in  the  interior  of  fruits  or 
seeds,  by  destroying  which  they  do  immense  damage.  Their  nymphs  are 
enclosed  in  a  cocoon.  But  even  in  their  perfect  state  some  of  these  beetles  are 
very  destructive  when  they  are  at  all  numerous. 

The  "Weevils  (Bru-chus^ft  are  tiny  authors  of  incalculable  mischief.  The 
females  deposit  their  eggs  in  the  buds,  yet  young  and  tender,  of  our  most 
useful  vegetables,  in  nascent  grains  of  corn,  in  the  flowers  of  the  palm-tree  and 
the  coffee-plant.  In  such  situations  the  larva?  are  hatched,  and  find  abundant 
food  stored  up  around  them.  Having  completed  their  metamorphoses,  the 
perfect  insects  eat  their  way  out  of  their  vegetable  prison,  leaving  behind  them 
those  round  holes  so  often  seen  in  peas  or  grains  of  wheat.  One  well-known 
species  only  lives  in  nuts,  where  it  devours  the  kernel,  converting  the  interior 
into  a  mass  of  bitterness.  Another  lives  in  cork,  filling  the  galleries  which  it 
excavates  with  an  equally  bitter  substance,  and  this  it  is  which  gives  the  bitter 
disagreeable  flavour  to  "  corked  "  wine.  Many  species,  such  as 


FIG.  87.  —  STAG-HORNED  PRIONUS  AND  DIAMOND  BEETLE. 

The  Diamond  Beetles  (Circulid),  are  gorgeously  apparelled,  as  is  abun- 
dantly indicated  by  the  names  with  which  they  are  honoured.  "  Imperial," 
"  royal,"  "  sumptuous,"  are  the  humblest  epithets  appropriate  to  their  magnifi- 
cence. Diamonds  and  pearls,  emeralds  and  rubies,  gold  and  sparkling  gems, 
look  paltry  when  compared  with  their  elaborate  bedizenment.  In  the  Brazils, 


>  rhynchos,  a  snout;  06/ooj,  plioros,  carrying,     f  Having  crooked  snouts. 


LADYBIRDS. 


99 


the  mimosa-trees  are  sometimes  so  crowded  with  these  splendid  insects  that 
the  branches  bend  beneath  their  glittering  burden.  Even  some  of  our  native 
species,  such  as  the  Rose  curculio,  when  seen  under  a  microscope,  are  found 
to  be  most  brilliantly  decorated. 

A  second  tribe  of  Coleopterous  Tetramerans  comprehends 
The  Wood-eaters  or  Xylophagi,*  a  race  of  insects  specially 
appointed  to  devour  timber.  They  mostly  live  upon  wood,  in 
which  their  larvae  excavate  galleries  in  all  directions  ;  so  that  when 
they  become  numerous,  whole  forests  of  pine  and  firs  are  de- 
stroyed by  their  ravages.  Some  cause  immense  damage  amongst 
olive-trees,  whilst  others,  the  feeblest  of  the  race,  content  them- 
selves with  devouring  various  kinds  of  fungi. 

As  an  example  of  these  timber-borers,  we  give  a  figure  of 
The  Long-horned  Beetle  (Prionus),  one  of  the  largest  of  the  tribe,  con- 
spicuous alike  from  the  beauty  of  its  colours  and  the  strength  of  its  jaws. 
(Fig.  87.) 

SECTION   OF   TRIMERANS. 

In  the  last  section  of  the  Coleoptera,  the 
Trimerans,  the  number  of  tarsal  joints  in  all  the  six  legs  is 
reduced  to  three;  of  these  the  best-known  examples  arc 

The  Ladybirds  (Coccinelld),  universal 
favourites,  and  as  useful  as  they  are  pretty. 
These  insects  are  readily  recognized  by  their 
semi-globular  shape,  and  by  the  peculiar 
pattern  of  their  colouring,  generally  black 
spots  upon  a  red  or  yellow  ground,  or  red 
and  yellow  spots  upon  a  black  ground.  They 
feed  exclusively  upon  the  plant-lice,  or 
Aphides,  that  infest  the  choicest  flowers  of 
our  greenhouses,  and  are  still  more  hurtful 
in  the  hop  plantation  and  the  garden.  To 
the  destruction  of  these  insect  pests  the 
whole  energies  of  the  ladybird  are  devoted. 
Its  eggs,  resembling  groups  of  ninepins  set 
upright,  are  laid  in  little  patches  on  the 
leaves  of  plants:  when  these  are  hatched 
they  give  birth  to  a  larva  furnished  with  a 
small  head  and  a  thick  but  tapering  body, 
which  creeps  actively  about  the  leaf  by 
means  of  six  short  legs  attached  to  its  ante- 
rior segments  (Fig.  88).  Its  colour  is  usually 
a  dark  bluish  grey,  having  black  spots  inter- 
spersed with  a  few  orange  spots  of  larger 
size.  It  riots  among  the  Aphides  like  a  lion  FlG-  SS.-LADYBIRD  AND  ITS  STAGES. 
among  a  flock  of  sheep,  devouring  them  one 


,  xylon,  wood ;  <pa.yeiv,  phagein,  to  eat. 


7—2 


TOO  ORTHOPTERA. 


after  another  with  insatiable  appetite,  until  its  full  growth  is  accomplished. 
It  then  glues  the  hinder  part  of  its  body  to  a  leaf,  and  awaits  its  change  into  a 
pupa.  In  a  day  or  two  the  skin  cleaves  down  the  back,  and  the  pupa  shows 
itself:  it  is  of  a  white  colour  at  first,  but  soon  becomes  black,  spotted  with 
red  and  yellow.  It  does  not  at  once  quit  the  spot  to  which  it  had  adhered  as 
a  larva,  but  remains  there  with  its  old  skin  gathered  in  folds  around  its  hinder 
parts.  For  a  week  it  continues  in  this  state,  motionless  and  apparently  dead, 
but  really  carrying  on  within  an  important  process,  namely,  developing  and 
hardening  the  various  organs  that  belong  to  the  perfect  insect.  At  the  end  of 
that  time,  the  pupa-case  bursts,  and  the  ladybird  crawls  out,  with  its  wing- 
cases  small  and  crumpled ;  but  they  soon  enlarge  and  become  smooth  and 
shapely,  though  they  remain  for  a  time  of  a  pale  yellow  colour,  without  any 
trace  of  the  spots  that  afterwards  become  so  beautiful.  In  the  course  of  a  few 
hours,  however,  the  rich  colours  begin  to  appear,  and  the  various  distinctive 
marks  give  the  creature  its  character  and  elegant  appearance.  At  the  same 
time  its  skin  has  acquired  firmness  and  its  muscles  vigour,  so  that,  leaving  its 
cast-off  garments  behind,  it  departs  on  its  fresh  travels,  again  to  make  war  on 
the  Aphides,  and  to  choose  a  mate. 

STRAIGHT-WINGED  INSECTS.    ORDER  ORTHOPTERA.* 

The  Orthoptera  differ  from  the  beetles  in  the  following  cir- 
cumstances. Their  tegumentary  skeleton  is  less  dense  and  solid, 
their  front  wings,  or  elytra,  are  semi- membranous,  and  are  sup- 
ported by  a  framework  of  nervures  ;  moreover,  instead  of  meeting 
in  a  straight  line  along  the  back,  they  overlap  each  other.  The 
hind  wings  are  folded  longitudinally  like  a  fan.  The  larvae  and 
pupae  are  equally  active  :  the  former  possess  no  wings,  and  in  the 
latter  these  organs  begin  to  show  themselves  enclosed  in  wing- 
cases  ;  in  both  conditions  they  closely  resemble  the  perfect  insect, 
and  live  upon  the  same  food.  Their  mouth  is  always  furnished 
with  cutting  mandibles,  with  which  they  devour  vegetable  sub- 
stances. They  are  all  terrestrial  in  their  habits,  and  for  the  most 
part  feed  upon  plants.  The  entire  Class  may  be  conveniently 
divided  into  two  groups  : 

ist.  Those  which  run  upon  the  ground  (Cursoria).t 

2nd.  Those  whose  hind  legs  are  constructed  for  leaping  (Sal- 
tat  oria).  J 

The  first  division  is  represented  by  the  Earwigs  and  Cock- 
roaches, the  latter  by  the  Grasshoppers  and  Crickets. 

The  Earwigs  (Forficuld)  form  a  connecting-link  between  the  Orthoptera 
and  the  beetles,  and  are  sometimes  described  as  forming  a  class  by  themselves, 
undtr  the  names  of  Dermaptera,  §  and  Euplexoptera.  ||  The  latter  name 

*  6p66s,  orthos,  straight ;  TTT^POV,  pteron,  a  wing.  *f  Cursoria,  running. 

+  Saltatoria,  leaping.  §  5fy//.a,  derma,  skin  ;  irrtpov,  pteron,  a  wing. 

II  ?i',  eu,  beautiful ;  7r\6co>,  pleco,  1 plait ;  irrtpov,  pteron,  a  wing. 


LEAF  INSECTS. 


TCI 


FIG.  89. — EARWIG  ON  THE  WING. 


is  given  to  them  on  account  of  the  beautiful 
manner  in  which  their  hinder  wings  are  folded 
up  when  at  rest  under  their  elytra.  The  ap- 
pearance of  these  elegant  wings,  when  ex- 
panded, is  represented  in  the  annexed  figure 
(Fig.  89);  when  closed,  they  are  curiously 
packed  into  a  sixth  part  of  their  ample  breadth. 
These  insects  do  much  injury  in  our  gardens, 
by  devouring  the  fruit  and  destroying  the  pe- 
tals of  our  favourite  flowers.  They  manifest 
great  care  and  attention  towards  their  young, 
guarding  them  with  parental  instinct,  and  de- 
fending them  by  means  of  the  powerful  for- 
ceps appended  to  the  hinder  part  of  their  body. 

The  Cockroaches  (Blatta),  supposed  to  have  been  originally  imported 
from  Asia,  now  swarm  in  this  country,  especially  in  the  underground  kitchens 
of  London  and  other  large  cities.  They  devour  all  kinds  of  provisions,  and 
even  gnaw  flannels,  shoes,  and  other  animal  substances.  They  are  nocturnal 
in  their  habits,  coming  out  of  their  holes  after  all  has  become  dark  and  quiet, 
and  sometimes  in  such  numbers  that,  if  a  candle  be  suddenly  brought  into  a 
room,  the  floor  will 
appear  quite  black  with 
these  annoying  intru- 
ders, yet  in  a  few  mo- 
ments all  of  them  dis- 
appear. The  eggs  of 
these  insects  are  en- 
closed in  an  egg-case 
of  very  curious  struc- 
ture, which  is  frequent- 
ly to  be  met  with  in  the 
crevices  of  walls,  be- 
hind shutters,  and  in 
similar  places  of  con- 
cealment ;  this  box  the 
iemale  carries  about 
with  her  for  some  time, 
attached  to  her  body; 
but  at  length  she  fixes 
it  to  the  selected  spot 
by  means  of  a  sort  of 
gummy  cement. 

The  Leaf  Insects 
(Mantis]  are  the  most 
i  emarkable  of  the  Cur- 
sorial Orthoptera.  No 
Parisian  manufacturer 
of  artificial  flowers 
could  more  success- 


FIG 90. — MANTIS. 


fully  imitate  the  productions  of  Flora  than  these  insects  are  made  to  coun- 
terfeit the  branches  and  the  foliage  of  the  shrubs  they  frequent,  so  that  while 
in  their  natural  haunts  it  is  next  to  impossible  for  the  most  practised  eye  to 


102  ORTHOPTERA. 


distinguish  them.  The  appearance  of  the  leaf  insects  whilst  waiting  for  their 
prey  is  very  singular.  They  remain  for  hours  together  stationary  in  the  attitude 
represented  in  the  annexed  figure,  with  their  fore  legs  held  up  together  like  a 
pair  of  arms,  prepared  to  seize  any  insect  that  may  come  within  their  reach. 
Hence  they  have  obtained  a  sort  of  sacred  character  amongst  the  credulous 
inhabitants  of  the  countries  in  which  they  are  found,  who,  from  a  superstitious 
notion  that  while  in  that  attitude  they  are  engaged  in  prayer,  have  given  them 
such  names  as  Prega  Diou,  Prie  Dieu,  &c.  These  creatures  are  very  voracious. 
No  sooner  does  an  insect  come  near  them  than,  like  a  cat  approaching  a  mouse, 
the  mantis  moves  imperceptibly  along,  and  steals  towards  its  victim,  fearful 
of  putting  it  to  flight.  When  sufficiently  close,  the  fore  leg  is  extended  to  its 
full  length,  and  the  fly  is  seized  and  crushed  by  the  numerous  spines  with 
which  its  edges  are  armed. 

The  Leaping  Orthoptera  (Saltatorid)  are  at  once  recogniz- 
able by  the  great  size  and  strength  of  their  hind  legs,  a  structure 
whereby  they  are  enabled  to  perform  prodigious  leaps.  Of  their 
general  form  we  have  a  familiar  example  in  the  House-Cricket, 
everywhere  to  be  met  with. 

The  House-Cricket  (Gryllus  domesticus)  frequents  the  same  situations, 
is  active  at  the  same  season,  feeds  on  the  same  substances,  and  has,  in  many 
respects,  the  same  habits  as  the  cockroach.  Its  ringing  "  crink"  proceeding 
from  the  fireplace  is  considered  a  cheerful  sound,  and  probably,  from  its  asso- 
ciation with  genial  warmth  and  plenty,  is  often  enumerated  among  the 
amenities  of  the  fireside. 

The  shrill  sound  above  alluded  to  is  produced  only  by  the  male  rubbing  its 
wings,  which  are  peculiarly  constructed,  one  against  the  other. 

The  Grasshoppers  (Gryllus  campcstris)  make  use  of  their  hind  legs  in 
producing  their  "  crink."  The  thigh  is  furnished  with  a  number  of  transverse, 
overlapping,  angular  plates,  and  the  shank  carries  a  series  of  short  horny 
points  upon  each  side.  The  insect,  when  it  crinks,  brings  the  shank  up  to  the 
thigh,  and  rubs  both  to  and  fro  against  the  wing-sheaths,  doing  this  by  turns 
with  the  right  and  left  legs,  which  causes  the  regular  break  in  the  sound. 

The  Locusts  (Gryllus  locusta)  belong  to  the  same  family  as  the  cricket 
and  grasshopper,  and,  considered  individually,  are  quite  as  harmless;  but 
coming,  as  they  frequently  do  in  Eastern  countries,  in  hosts,  which  darken 
the  air  and  cover  the  surface  of  the  earth,  are  amongst  the  most  dreadful 
scourges  of  the  human  race. 

Dr.  Shaw,  who  has  given  us  an  account  of  the  swarms  which  he  saw  in 
Barbary,  tells  us  that  they  first  appeared  about  the  end  of  March,  and  in- 
creased into  vast  numbers  in  April,  but  returned  into  the  extensive  plains  in 
May  to  deposit  their  eggs.  The  larvag  derived  from  these  eggs  made  their  ap- 
pearance in  June,  and  were  formed  into  compact  bodies,  each  covering  about 
a  square  furlong  of  ground  :  they  marched  onward  in  phalanx,  surmount- 
ing every  obstacle  in  their  way,  entering  houses  and  chambers,  and  desolating 
the  gardens,  undeterred  by  the  slaughter  made  amongst  the  foremost.  In 
this  manner  horde  succeeded  horde  for  days  together.  In  the  course  of  about 
~a  month  they  arrived  at  their  full  growth,  cast  their  pupa  or  nymph-skin, 
and  as  soon  as  their  wings  were  dry  and  expanded,  mounted  into  the  air. 
Locusts  are  eaten  in  many  places.  They  are  mentioned  as  among  the 
clean  meats  in  Lev.  xi.  22.  In  the  plain  of  Bushire  they  are  collected,  dried, 


LOCUSTS. 


103 


and  salted,  and  sold  to 
the  peasantry :  when 
boiled,  the  yellow  ones 
turn  red,  and  eat  like 
stale  shrimps.  The 
Arabs  grind  them  into 
powder,  which  they 
make  into  small  round 
cakes,  that  serve  for 
food  when  bread  is 
scarce.  In  the  Mah- 
ratta  country  the  peo- 
ple salt  and  eat  them. 
They  are  eaten  by  the 
Hottentots,  and  formed 
in  ancient  times  part 
of  the  diet  of  the  Ethi- 
opians and  Parthians. 
The  Mole-Cricket 
(Gryllotalpd)  is  a  bur- 
rower  not  inferior  to 
the  mole,  after  which  it 
is  named,  in  the  singu- 
lar adaptation  of  its 
structure  to  the  habits 
assigned  to  it.  Like 
that  animal,  it  has  the 
fore  limbs  shortened, 

flattened,  and  enormously  strengthened,  while  their  extremities  are  formed 
into  broad  rakes  turned  obliquely  outwards,  and  armed  with  stout  tooth-like 


FIG.  91.— LOCUSTS. 


FIG.  92. — MOLE-CKICKET. 


104 


NEUROPTERA. 


projections.  By  the  assistance  of  this  most  efficient  apparatus,  the  mole- 
cricket  makes  its  way  beneath  the  soil  with  the  utmost  facility,  and  at  the 
proper  season  digs  for  itself  in  the  earth,  a  little  chamber  with  smoothly  po- 
lished walls,  in  which  it  deposits  from  a  hundred  to  three  hundred  eggs,  in 
their  shape  much  like  little  sugar-plums.  Intricate  winding  passages  lead 
from  this  retreat  to  the  surface  of  the  bank,  at  the  mouth  of  one  of  which 
the  old  cricket  sits  and  chirps  cheerfully  all  the  day  long. 


LACE-WINGED  INSECTS.    ORDER  NEUROPTERA.* 

The  insects  belonging  to  the  Neuropterous  Order  possess 
four  transparent  wings,  for  the  most  part  of  equal  size.  The 
nervures  are  numerous  and  connected,  so  as  to  form  a  network 
pattern  more  or  less  close.  The  mouth  is  armed  with  jaws,  but 
the  body  is  not  furnished  with  a  sting.  The  larvae  are  active, 
and  always  provided  with  six  jointed  legs,  each  terminated  by  a 
pair  of  hooks.  • 

The  Dragon-Flies  (Libelluld).  The  brilliant  dragon-flies  that  career 
on  flashing  wing  through  the  lanes  and  over  the  ponds  in  the  warmest 
weather  of  summer  give  us  the  highest  idea  of  insect  power,  combined 
with  elegance  of  form.  Their  large  round  lustrous  eyes,  both  furnished  with 

twelve  thousand  po- 
lished lenses,  that 
command  each 
point  on  the  broad 
span  of  sky  or 
earth ;  their  bur- 
nished  armour, 
gemmed  with  green 
and  gold  and  black; 
their  gorgeous 
wings,  like  films  of 
living  glass  stretch- 
ed over  network  (to 
compare  with  which 
the  finest  lace  is  but 
a  sorry  piece  of 
workmanship),  pro- 
claim them  tyrants 
of  the  air  and  mo- 
narchs  of  the  insect 
world;  yet  in  the  ear- 
liest stages  of  their 

FIG.  93.— DRAGON-FLY.  existence,  the  splen- 

did creatures,  array- 
ed in  humbler  guise,  inhabited  some  neighbouring  pool  or  ditch.   The  larva  is 

*  vfvpov,  neuron,  nervure ;  irTtpov,  pteron,  a  wing. 


MA  Y-FLIES. 


105 


an  uncouth,  broad,  flat,  olive-coloured  animal,  having  six  sprawling  legs,  with 
which  it  crawls,  spider-like,  about  the  mud  at  the  bottom  of  ponds,  or  glides 
by  a  singular  mechanism  through  the  water.  The  hinder  extremity  of  the 
body  is  furnished  with  several  leaf-like  appendages,  capable  of  being  brought 
close  together  or  opened  at  pleasure.  These  close  the  orifice  of  a  cavity 
whose  sides  are  very  muscular.  When  the  insect  wishes  to  move  rapidly  it 
opens  this  cavity,  which  thus  becomes  filled  with  water,  and  then  by  a  con- 
traction of  its  walls  the  water  is  forcibly  ejected  in  a  stream,  as  from  a  syringe, 
and  thus  the  larva  is  propelled  like  a  rocket, 
with  its  legs  closely  packed  against  its  sides. 
The  pupa  only  differs  from  the  larva  by  hav- 
ing the  rudiments  of  wings  attached  to  its 
thorax;  both  are  active  and  voracious,  the 
tyrants  of  the  pool,  devouring  with  ferocity 
other  insects,  tadpoles,  small  newts,  and  even 
fishes.  These  predatory  habits  are  continued 
in  the  perfect  insect,  whose  sanguinary  pro- 
pensities are  no  less  correctly  expressed  by 
our  term  Dragon-Fly  than  its  elegance  and 
grace  by  the  French  appellation  Demoiselle. 
It  pursues  gnats  and  flies  in  the  air,  eating  them  on  the  wing.  It  has  been 
seen  to  catch  butterflies,  and  Mr.  Gosse,  to  whose  elegant  pen  we  are  indebted 
for  much  of  the  above  graphic  account  of  their  history,  believes  that  they 
sometimes  pounce  upon  the  fry  of  fishes  when  swimming  at  the  surface. 

The  May-Flies  (Ephemera}*    These  insects  have  received  their  name 
from  the  shortness  of  their  existence  in  their  perfect  state,  which  is,  indeed,  so 


FIG.  94.— PUPA  OF  DRAGON-FLY. 


FIG.  95. — LARVA  OF  EPHEMERON,  AND  SECTION  OF  ITS  CELL. 

brief  that  the  same  evening  sun  which  sees  their  birth  generally  witnesses 
their  destruction.  Their  life,  however,  in  the  earlier  stages  of  their  growth 
is  of  much  longer  duration.  In  their  larva  state  they  live  in  the  water,  lurk- 
ing under  stones,  or  residing  in  little  holes  that  they  excavate  in  the  banks  of 


,  ephemeros,  living  but  a  day. 


io6 


NEUROPTERA. 


FIG.  96. -MAY- FLIES  IN  SUNSET  DANCE. 

the  stream.  When  about  to  undergo  their  last  transformation,  they  leave  the 
water  and  cast  off  their  pupa  covering ;  but,  by  a  remarkable  exception  to 
other  insects,  they  are  still  covered  by  a  thin  pellicle,  which  gives  them  a  dull 
appearance.  In  this  condition  they  are  known  to  the  angler  as  "duns'"  in  a 
short  time,  however,  they  cast  off  this  temporary  deshabille,  leaving  it  upon 
trees  or  walls,  or  even  the  clothes  of  the  passer-by,  and  present  themselves  in 
the  full  livery^of  the  perfect  insect,  in  which  garb  they  constitute  the  "Drake" 
of  the  fly-fisher. 

The  Scorpion  Flies  (Panorpa)  are  remarkable  from  the  extraordinary 
structure  of  the  tail,  which  in  the  male  is  terminated  by  a  pair  of  forceps, 
giving  them  the  appearance  of  winged  scorpions. 

The  Ant-Lions  (Mynneleo)  *  much  resemble  the  dragon-flies,  but  their 
habits  in  the  earlier  stages  of  their  existence  are  very  different.  The  larva 
lives  principally  upon  ants,  which  it  catches  by  a  singular  contrivance.  Not 
being  able,  from  the  structure  of  its  body,  to  catch  such  active  prey  by  any 
ordinary  proceeding,  it  constructs  a  trap,  by  walking  backwards,  round  and 
round  and  round,  until  a  deep  conical  excavation  is  formed  in  the  loose  sand, 
at  the  bottom  of  which  the  creature  buries  itself,  and  there  remains  quietly 
concealed,  with  the  exception  of  its  long  scissor-like  fangs,  which  are  kept 
half  open  and  ready  for  action.  Thus  ensconced,  woe  betide  any  imprudent 
insect  that  unhappily  passes  too  near  the  treacherous  margin  of  this  pitfall. 
No  sooner  does  it  approach  the  fatal  brink  than,  the  loose  sides  giving  way 

,  murmex,  the  ant ;  \lwv,  Icon,  the  lion. 


ANT-LIONS. 


107 


beneath  its  feet,  it  is  precipitated  to  the  bottom,  and  falls  at  once  into  the  power 
of  its  destroyer.     The  ant-lion,  or,  as  Bonnet  calls  him,  on  account  of  his 


FIG.  97.— CIRCULAR  DITCH  OF  ANT-LION. 

cunning,  the  "  ant-fox,"  has  no  mouth,  but  instead,  two  horny  fangs,  resem- 
bling jaws,  which  are  toothed  upon  the  inner  margin,  and  terminate  in  sharp 
points.  These  jaw-like  appendages  are  hollow,  and  serve  not  only  for  seizing, 
but  for  sucking  the  juices  of  any  insect  that  may  come  within  reach. 

The  Lace- winged  Flies  (He tne robins}  *  are  not  very  dissimilar  from  the 

ant-lions,  although  they  dig  no  pitfalls. 
These  insects,  frequently  seen  in  our 
gardens,  with  their  bright  green  bodies, 
golden  eyes,  and  iridescent  wings,  are  in 
their  perfect  state  most  elegant  creatures. 
The  female  lays  her  eggs  upon  the  leaves 
of  plants,  to  which  they  are  attached  in 
a  very  curious  manner.  The  insect  first 
fixes  to  the  leaf  a  small  quantity  of  a 
tenacious  gum-like  fluid,  sufficiently 
viscid  to  be  drawn  out  into  a  long  thread- 
like filament,  upon  the  farthest  end  of 


FIG.  98. — LACE-WINGED  FLY.     MANNER  OF 
DEPOSITING  EGGS. 


FIG.  99.— APHIS-LION. 


which  the  egg  is  attached,  so  that  when  the  filaments  are  hardened  by  exposure 
to  the  air,  each  egg  is  suspended  at  the  extremity  of  a  slender  footstalk.  The 
larvse  hatched  from  these  eggs  have  been  named  "Aphis-lions,"  for  no  sooner 
do  they  get  on  to  the  plants,  than  they  attack  the  Aphides  with  insatiable 
voracity,  and  are  thus  of  incalculable  benefit  to  the  gardener.  Some  of  them 


emera,  day  ;  fiiou,  bioo,  to 


io8 


NEUROPTERA. 


cover  their  bodies  with  the  skins  of  their  victims,  so  as  to  render  themselves 
almost  invisible.  When  full  fed,  they  spin  themselves  cocoons,  and  thus 
await  their  final  change. 

The  Stone-Flies  (Semblis)  are  among  the  favourite  lures  of  the  fly-fisher. 
These  insects  lay  their  eggs  upon  the  rushes  by  the  river-side,  placing  them 
perpendicularly  on  end,  like  ninepins  glued  together.  The  larva  inhabits  the 
water,  where  it  breathes  by  means  of  gill-like  filaments  attached  to  the  side 
of  its  body. 

The  White  Ants  (Termes).  These  destructive  insects  have  no  relation- 
ship whatever  with  the  ants  properly  so  called.  They  abound  in  all  tropical 
countries,  where,  whilst  in  their  larva  condition,  they  commit  terrible  ravages. 
Their  larvae,  called  also  workers  or  labourers,  very  much  resemble  the  perfect 
insects,  but  their  bodies  are  softer,  they  have  no  wings,  and  their  head,  which 


FIG.  100.— WORKER  TERMITE. 


FIG.  TOT. — SOLDIER  TERMITE. 


JAWS   OF   THE   ABOVE    MAGNIFIED. 


FIG.  io2.— SECTION  OF  NEST  OF  TERMES  BELLICOSUS. 


seems  proportionately  of  larger  size,  is  not  furnished  with  eyes,  or  if  these  exist 
at  all,  they  are  extremely  minute.  These  insects  congregate  in  societies  so 
numerous  as  to  defy  ordinary  calculation.  They  live  together,  either  con- 
cealed underground,  or  they  take  up  their  abode  in  anything  that  is  made  of 
wood,  no  matter  what, — trees,  planks,  and  beams  ;  even  articles  of  furniture 
are  made  available  for  their  habitations.  In  these  they  excavate  galleries  in 
every  direction,  never,  however,  injuring  the  surface,  so  that  although  objects 


CADDIS-FLIES. 


109 


so  attacked  continue  to  look  substantial  externally,  they  fall  to  pieces  at  the 
slightest  touch.  If  compelled  to  leave  their  domicile,  they  construct  tubes  or 
covered  ways  as  they  proceed,  so  that  they  always  work  concealed  from 


FIG.  103.— MALE  TERMITE. 


observation.  Sometimes  they  raise  edifices  above  the  ground  in  the  shape  of 
pyramids  or  towers,  occasionally  surmounted  by  a  solid  roof:  these  habita- 
tions, both  from  their  dimensions  and  their  numbers,  might  easily  be  mistaken 
for  villages.  Together  with  the  labourers,  each  community  contains  a  number 
ut  individuals  called  neuters,  or  soldiers,  to  whom  the  defence  of  the  colony  is 


FIG.  104.— QUEEN  TERMITE  (NATURAL  SIZE). 


intrusted  :  these  are  at  once  distinguishable  from  the  large  size  of  their  heads 
and  ponderous  jaws.  Besides  the  above,  there  are  winged  males,  and  a  queen 
or  fertile  female,  whose  fecundity  surpasses  anything  elsewhere  known  in  the 
animal  creation.  Arrived  at  their  perfect  state,  they  all  become  possessed  of 
wings,  and  issuing  forth  in  countless  numbers  by  night,  cover  the  country  as 
with  a  living  deluge.  The  rising  sun  however,  dries  their  wings,  and  they 
become  a  prey  to  numerous  enemies,  to  whom  they  serve  as  food. 

The  Caddis-Flies  (Phryganea\  *  which,  like' the  May-flies  are  among 
the  best  friends  of  the  fly -fisher  are  usually  placed  among  the  Neuropterous 
insects,  although  the  nervures  of  their  wings  can  scarcely  be  said  to  form  a 
network.f  Their  economy  in  the  early  stages  of  their  growth  is  very  curious. 
The  larva,  which  is  peculiarly  constructed,  forms  for  its  residence  a  tubular 
case,  made  of  minute  shells,  stones,  seeds,  bits  of  stick  or  bark,  fragments  of 
the  stems  of  water-plants,  and  similar  matters,  which  it  arranges  around  its 
body,  fixing  them  by  means  of  a  glutinous  silk,  which  also  lines  the  tube. 
Numbers  of  these  cases  may  often  be  seen  at  the  bottom  of  pebbly  streams, 
with  the  head  and  feet  of  the  larva  protuding  from  one  end  as  it  crawls  about 

*  fpiywoy,  phryganon,  a  dry  stick.  f  Some  authors  constitute  a  distinct  Order 

for  them,  under  the  name  of  Trichoptera,  or  Hairy- winged  Insects. 


no  HYMENOPTERA. 

with  a  straggling  irregular  motion.  When  full  grown,  the  little  creature  creeps 
up  the  stem  of  some  aquatic  plant  till  the  mouth  of  its  case  just  reaches  the 
surface  of  the  water ;  it  then  spins  a  net  of  silk  across  the  entrance  to  its 
abode,  and  goes  into  the  pupa  state.  At  the  appointed  time  the  pupa  tears 
its  way  easily  throi'g'i  the  silken  grate,  crawls  a  few  inches  out  of  the  water, 
throws  off  its  pupa  sKin,  and  becomes  a  winged  caddis-fly. 


FIG.  105. — PITA-CASE,  LARVA,  AND  FLY  OF  CADDIS-WOKM. 


MEMBRANE-WINGED  INSECTS.    ORDER  HYMENOPTERA.* 

The  Hymenopterous  insects,  like  the  Neuroptera,  are  furnished 
with  four  transparent  wings,  but  the  nervures,  instead  of  forming; 
a  very  close  network,  are  much  more  sparingly  distributed.  An- 
other difference  is  that  in  the  Hymenoptera  the  hind  pair  of  wings 
seem  as  if  cut  out  of  the  front  pair,  with  which,  during  flight,  they 
interlock  by  means  of  small  hooks,  so  that  the  two  wings  almost 
resemble  one.  The  abdomen  is,  moreover,  terminated  by  an 
apparatus  which  in  some  species  serves  for  the  deposition  of  the 
eggs,  but  in  others  is  connected  with  a  poison-bag,  and  forms  a 
venomous  sting.  To  this  Order  belong 

The  Saw-Flies  (Tcnthredo).  They  derive  their  name  from  a  curiously- 
constructed  instrument  called  an  ovipositor,  with  which  the  female  is  pro- 
vided. This  consists  of  a  saw  composed  of  two  blades  that  work  alternately, 
by  means  of  which  she  makes  incisions  in  the  branches  of  plants,  wherein  she 
deposits  her  eggs.  The  wounds  thus  made  by  the  teeth  of  the  saw  frequently 
cause  the  wounded  part  to  swell  into  a  fleshy  mass  resembling  a  fruit,  in  the 
interior  of  which  the  larvae  find  the  materials  for  their  subsistence.  The  larvae 
very  much  resemble  caterpillars,  from  which,  however,  they  are  easily  dis- 
tinguished by  the  number  of  their  feet :  before  changing  into  nymphs,  the 
false  caterpillars  enclose  themselves  in  a  cocoon,  in  which  they  remain  many 
months  in  their  caterpillar  condition,  only  becoming  changed  into  nymphs  a 
few  days  before  their  final  conversion  into  saw-flies. 

In  the  spring-time  of  the  year,  when  the  bright  leaves  of  our  gooseberry- 
bushes  first  make  their  appearance,  they  are  often  devoured  in  a  remarkable 
manner,  even  before  they  have  completely  concealed  the  straggling  spiny 

*  i>ld)v,  umen,  a  membrane ;  irrtpov,  pteron,  a  wing. 


SAW-FLIES.  in 


branches.  If  the  injury  stopped  here,  with  the  despoliation  of  his  gooseberry- 
bushes,  the  gardener  might  perhaps  put  up  with  it  without  much  grumbling ; 
but  unfortunately  the  production  of  leaves  and  fruit  are  intimately  connected, 
and  unless  the  branches  are  well  clothed  with  the  former,  the  crop  of  the 
latter  will  be  very  small.  If  we  search  for  the  cause  of  this  wholesale  de- 
struction, we  shall  find  that  it  is  occasioned  by  a  multitude  of  small  caterpillar- 
like  larvae,  furnished  with  twenty  feet,  of  a  pale  greenish  colour,  covered  with 
numerous  rows  of  little  black  tubercles,  each  of  which  bears  a  small  hair  at 
its  summit :  sometimes  a  thousand  or  more  will  inhabit  a  single  bush^which  is 


of  course  soon  stripped  of  every  green  leaf;  in  about  ten  days  these  voracious 
larvae  have  attained  their  full  growth,  they  then  descend  into  the  ground 
beneath  the  scene  of  their  ravages,  enclose  themselves  in  a  small  cocoon,  and 
undergo  their  transformation  into  a  pupa.  In  this  condition  they  remain  for 
a  fortnight,  when  they  emerge  in  the  perfect  state.  The  fly  thus  produced  is 
a  little  saw-fly  (Nematus  grossularice),  which  in  its  turn  becomes  the  parent 
of  another  host  of  destructive  gooseberry  grubs.  It  deposits  its  eggs  along  the 
course  of  the  principal  veins  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  leaf,  where  they  are 
placed  like  rows  of  minute  beads.  The  pupae  proceeding  from  this  second 
brood  pass  the  winter  in  the  earth,  and  the  perfect  insects  do  not  emerge  from 
them  before  the  month  of  March  in  the  following  year. 

The  Cuckoo-Flies  (Ichneumon}  are  so  called  because  they  lay  their  eggs 
in  the  interior  of  other  insects,  at  whose  expense  their  progeny  are  nourished. 
For  this  purpose  the  females  are  provided  with  a  boring  apparatus,  somewhat 
resembling  a  long  tail,  called  their  ovipositor,  by  means  of  which  they  implant 
their  eggs  in  the  backs  of  their  victims,  just  as  a  gardener  would  set  potatoes 
in  the  ground.  The  female,  when  about  to  lay  her  eggs,  may  be  seen  flying 
about  with  restless  industry  in  search  of  the  larvae  or  pupae  of  other  insects, 
or  even  spiders,  to  which  she  is  about  to  intrust  the  support  of  her  family.  No 
matter  where  they  are  hidden,  under  the  bark  of  trees,  or  in  cracks  and  crevices, 
she  is  sure  to  find  them  out,  and  soon  succeeds  by  means  of  her  long  ovipositor 
in  piercing  their  flesh,  and  depositing  an  egg  in  the  interior  of  their  bodies, 
— occasionally  she  repeats  the  operation  several  times.  In  a  very  short  time 
the  eggs  are  hatched,  and  the  larvae  of  the  Ichneumon  find  abundant  food  in 
their  strange  domicile.  By  this  proceeding  the  hungry  but  sterile  caterpillars 
are  prevented  from  changing  into  the  prolific  butterfly,  and  thus  the  world  is 
defended  against  their  insatiable  voracity. 


ii2  HYMENOPTERA. 


The  Gall-Flies  (Cynifs).  These  insects,  too,  are  furnished  with  a  borer, 
or  ovipositor,  but  of  a  different  character  :  by  its  assistance  the  little  Cynips 
bores  the  leaves  or  tender  shoots  of  trees,  in  which  she  lays  her  eggs ;  the 
wounded  part,  strangely  responsive  to  such  a  stimulus,  swells  out  into  an  ex- 
crescence— that  is  called  a  gall.  The  form  and  the  solidity  of  these  vegetable 


FIG.  107.  -GALL-FLY. 

productions  vary  according  to  the  part  of  the  plant  which  produces  them.  The 
leaves,  the  buds,  the  petioles,  the  bark,  the  roots,  all  form  their  different  kinds, 
some  of  which  are  useful  in  the  arts.  The  gall-nut  of  the  oak,  for  instance, 
yields  a  deep  black  dye,  and  is  employed  in  making  ink.  The  larvae  hatched 
within  these  galls  find  there  both  board  and  lodging,  till  the  time  arrives  for 
their  last  change. 

In  the  second  section  of  the  Hymenopterous  insects,  the  fe- 
males, instead  of  an  ovipositor,  are  furnished  with  a  sting.  This 
section  embraces 

The  Ants  (Formica),  so  celebrated  for  their  foresight  and  their  industry. 
These  insects  live  in  societies  that  are  often  very  numerous,  and  consist  of 
individuals  of  three  different  denominations — the  males,  the  females,  and  the 
neuters,  which  last  are  only  females  imperfectly  developed ;  and  it  is  upon 
them  that  the  work  of  the  colony  and  the  care  of  the  young  entirely  devolve. 
The  nature  and  form  of  the  abode  of  these  insects  vary  in  accordance  with 
the  instincts  of  the  species :  some  establish  themselves  underground,  others 
build  edifices  of  considerable  height,  surmounted  by  dome-shaped  roofs,  others 
again  reside  in  aged  trees,  the  interior  of  which  they  pierce  in  all  directions 
with  their  galleries,  which.,  however  irregular  they  may  seem,  always  lead  to 
the  nurseries  of  the  establishment.  The  labours  of  the  industrious  neuters 


BEES,  113 

are  very  multifanous;  some  go  in  search  of  provisions,  in  the  transport  of 
which  they  mutually  assist  each  other;  some  feed  the  young,  take  them  out 
on  fine  days  to  enjoy  the  sunshine,  and  watch  over  them  with  the  tenderest 
care,  exhibiting  in  their  defence  a  degree  of  courage  well  calculated  to  excite 


108.— WORKING  AM  AND  PORTION  OF  ANT-HILL. 


admiration.  When  their  habitations  are  by  any  means  injured  or  destroyed, 
no  time  is  lost  in  useless  despair,  one  spirit  animates  each  individual,  simul- 
taneously they  set  to  work  to  repair  their  misfortune ;  they  labour  unceasingly, 
nothing  damps  their  ardour  or  abates  their  industry  until,  as  if  by  magic,  their 
habitation  rises  to  its  former  height  and  beauty,  and  all  traces  of  ruin  have 
disappeared. 

The  Wasps  ( Vespd)  likewise  live  in  society.  Only  the  females  found  new 
colonies.  In  the  spring  they  lay  their  eggs,  from  which  are  derived  individuals 
called  workers,  who  assist  their  common  mother.  To  construct  their  nest  or 
vespiary,  these  insects,  by  the  aid  of  their  mandibles,  detach  pieces  of  bark  or 
old  wood,  which  they  reduce  to  a  sort  of  paper-like  paste.  Of  this  they  form 
the  combs :  these  are  generally  horizontal,  suspended  by  pedicles,  and  com- 
posed of  hexagonal  cells,  serving  for  the  lodgment  of  the  larvae  and  pupae. 
The  combs  are  ranged  in  stages  parallel  to  each  other  at  regular  distances, 
and  are  joined  together  at  intervals  by  little  columns  that  support  them.  The 
whole  is  built  sometimes  in  the  open  air,  sometimes  in  the  hollow  of  a  tree,  and 
some  are  enclosed  in  a  common  envelope,  according  to  the  species.  It  is  only 
in  the  beginning  of  autumn  that  male  wasps  are  found  in  the  vespiary;  the 
young  females  make  their  appearance  at  the  same  time.  About  the  month 
of  N  ovember,  the  young  wasps  that  have  not  completed  their  last  metamor- 
phosis are  put  to  death,  and  thrown  out  of  the  cells  by  the  neuters,  who,  as 
well  as  the  males,  perish  when  cold  weather  arrives ;  so  that  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  species  is  confided  exclusively  to  the  few  females  who  resist  the 
inclemency  of  the  winter  and  survive  till  spring. 

The  Bees  (Apis}.  A  society  of  bees  consists  of  individuals  of  three  dif- 
ferent kinds ;  namely,  the  "  workers,"  or  "  labourers,"  the  drones,  and  one  soli- 
tary fertile  female  called  the  queen-bee.  The  workers  are  very  numerous :  in 
a  well-populated  hive  their  average  number  is  from  fifteen  to  twenty  thousand, 

8 


1 1 4  HVMENOPTERA. 


They  are  of  smaller  size  than  the  drones ;  from  which  they  are  moreover  dis- 
tinguishable by  their  spoon-shaped  mandibles,  and  by  the  structure  of  their 
hind  legs,  which  are  furnished  with  excavations  upon  their  outer  surface,  sur- 
rounded by  hairs,  called  "  baskets,"  in  which  they  convey  the  pollen  of  flowers 
collected  in  the  garden.  The  males  or  drones,  when  at  their  full  complement, 
number  from  six  to  eight  hundred  in  a  hive  of  ordinary  size  :  they  are  slightly  . 
larger  than  the  working  bees,  are  not  furnished  with  a  sting,  and  have  a  shorter 
proboscis.  The  reason  of  their  being  so  numerous  would  appear  to  be  simply 
to  allow  the  queen-bee  to  select  her  own  mate  out  of  her  numerous  suitors, 
for  after  she  has  made  her  selection,  they  are  simultaneously  butchered  by  the 
working  bees,  and  cast  forth  from  the  hive  as  useless  encumbrances.  The  queen- 
bee  alone,  amidst  this  numerous  assemblage,  is  capable  of  laying  eggs,  a  cir- 
cumstance easily  accounted  for  when  we  reflect  upon  her  extraordinary  fertility. 
The  working  bees,  according  to  Huber,  are  divided  into  two  classes,  the  wax- 
workers^  to  whom  is  intrusted  the  charge  of  procuring  food  and  furnishing  the 
materials  for  building  the  comb,  and  the  nurses,  which  are  of  smaller  size, 


FIG.  109. —FESTOON  OF  WAX-MAKERS.  FIG.  no. — PROBOSCIS  OF  HONEY-BEE. 

occupy  themselves  entirely  with  domestic  duties,  and  to  whom  is  intrusted  the 
nursing  of  the  young  brood.  As  the  honey-bee  is  not  capacitated  by  its  instinct 
to  construct  a  nest  protected  by  any  general  covering,  as  is  the  case  with  the 
wasps  and  termites,  it  is  obliged  to  select  some  cavity  in  which  to  build  :  this 
is  sometimes  a  hollow  tree,  but  more  generally  the  hive  artificially  prepared 
for  its  reception.  In  this  retreat  the  workers  construct  their  combs,  made  up 
of  an  immense  assemblage  of  hexagonal  cells,  in  which  they  educate  their 
young  brood,  and  store  away  provisions  for  the  use  of  the  community.  The 
combs  are  always  suspended  perpendicularly  and  parallel  to  each  other>  leav- 
ing sufficient  space  between  them  to  afford  passage  to  the  insects.  The  cells 
are  thus  placed  horizontally.  Skilful  geometricians  have  demonstrated  that 
the  shape  of  the  individual  cells  is  precisely  that  which  is  most  economical 
as  relates  to  the  expenditure  of  wax  used  in  their  construction,  as  well  as  that 
calculated  to  insure  the  greatest  possible  space.  The  bees,  however,  are  able 
to  modify  their  form  according  to  circumstances.  With  the  exception  of  such 
as  are  destined  for  the  reception  of  the  royal  brood,  these  cells  are  all  nearly 


BEES.  115 

of  the  same  size ;  some  are  used  as  cradles  wherein  the  young  are  lodged, 
while  others  are  filled  with  honey  and  the  pollen  of  flowers.  Some  of  the 
honey-cells  are  left  open,  others,  used  as  a  reserve,  are  carefully  closed  with  a 
lid  of  wax.  The  royal  cells,  varying  from  two  to  forty  in  each  hive,  are  much 
larger  than  the  rest,  and  are  suspended,  like  stalactites,  from  the  margins  of 
the  combs. 

The  cells  provided  for  the  males  are  intermediate  in  their  dimensions  be- 
tween these  and  those  constructed  for  the  reception  of  the  young  labourers. 
As  the  bees  invariably  build  them  from  above  downwards,  those  at  the  bottom 
are  always  the  last  constructed. 

The  queen-bee  begins  to  lay  her  eggs  in  early  summer,  and  continues  to  do 
so  at  intervals  till  the  close  of  autumn.  Reaumur  has  estimated  that  she  will 
sometimes  lay  twelve  thousand  eggs  in  the  course  of  twenty  days.  Guided  by 
an  unerring  instinct,  she  never  makes  a  mistake  in  choosing  the  cells  proper 
to  receive  her  different  kinds  of  eggs.  Those  laid  in  early  spring  always  give 


FIG.  113. — PI/PA. 
FIG.  in.— HONEYCOMB,  WITH  MALE,  WORKER,  AND  ROYAL  CELLS. 

birth  to  working  bees ;  they  are  hatched  in  the  course  of  four  or  five  days,  and 
the  young  larva?  are  at  once  taken  care  of  by  the  nursing  bees,  and  provided 
with  food  adapted  to  their  condition.  Six  or  seven  days  after  their  birth  they 
dispose  themselves  to  undergo  their  metamorphosis.  Shut  up  in  their  cells  by 
their  nurses,  who  close  the  opening  with  a  lid  of  wax,  they  line  the  walls  of 
their  narrow  dwelling  with  a  tapestry  of  silk,  in  which  they  spin  a  cocoon, 
become  nymphs,  and  after  about  twelve  days  of  seclusion,  issue  forth  as  work- 
ing bees,  already  taught  by  their  Divine  instructor  how  at  once  to  set  about 
their  various  avocations.  The  eggs  from  which  the  males  are  produced  are 
not  laid  till  two  months  later,  and  shortly  afterwards  those  which  give  birth 
to  females  are  deposited. 

The  Humble  Bees  (Bombus)  are  well  known  to  every  schoolboy.  Many 
of  them  dwell  underground,  or  in  moss-covered  nests,  where  they  live  together 
in  colonies,  varying  from  sixty  to  two  hundred  or  three  hundred  in  number. 

Hugh  Miller  thus  shortly  describes  the  principal  species  of  humble  bees : 
"When  a  boy  at  Cromarty,"  says  that  elegant  writer,  "the  wild  honey-bees  in 
their  several  species  had  peculiar  charms  for  us.  There  were  the  buff- coloured 
carders^  that  erected  over  their  honey-jars  domes  of  moss ;  the  lapidary,  red- 
tipped  bees,  that  built  amidst  the  recesses  of  ancient  cairns,  and  in  old  dry 

8 — 2 


i6 


STREPSIPTERA. 


stone  walls,  and  were  so  invincibly  brave  in  defending  their  homesteads  that 
they  never  gave  up  the  quarrel  till  they  died ;  and  above  all,  the  yellow-zoned 
humble  bees,  that  lodged  deep  in  the  ground,  along  the  dry  sides  of  the  grassy 
bank,  and  were  usually  wealthier  in  honey  than  their  congeners,  and  existed 
in  large  communities.  But  the  herd-boy  of  the  parish,  and  the  foxes  of  its 
woods  and  brakes,  shared  in  my  interest  in  the  wild  honey-bees,  and,  in  the 
pursuit  of  other  things  than  knowledge,  were  ruthless  robbers  of  their  nests." 


J.  114. -HUMBLE  BEES;  MALE,  FEMALE,  AND  WORKER. 


BEE  PARASITES     ORDER  STREPSIPTERA.* 

The  Rev.  Mr.  Kirby  had  more  than  once  observed  upon  several 
species  of  bees  something  that  he  took  to  be  a  kind  of  mite,  with 
which  insects  are  very  commonly  infested,  and  determined  not  to 
lose  the  opportunity  of  taking  one  off  for  examination.  On  at- 
tempting, however,  to  disengage  it  with  a  pin,  much  to  his  aston- 
ishment, he  drew  forth  from  the  body  of  the  bee  what  he  imagined 

to  be  a  white  fleshy  larva,  a  quar- 
ter of  an  inch  long,  the  head  of 
which  he  had  mistaken  for  a  mite. 
It  had  neither  mouth  nor  pro- 
boscis, nor  any  apparent  means 
of  obtaining  food.  "  After  I  had 
examined  one  specimen,"  says 
Mr.  Kirby,  "  I  attempted  to  ex- 
tract a  second,  and  the  reader 
may  imagine  how  greatly  my  as- 
tonishment was  increased  when, 
after  I  had  drawn  it  out  but  a 
little  way,  I  saw  its  skin  burst, 
and  a  head  as  black  as  ink,  with  large  staring  eyes,  and  antennae, 
consisting  of  two  branches,  break  forth  and  move  itself  briskly 


FIG.  115.— STYLOPS. 


u,  strepsis,  twisting;  irrtpov,  pteron,  a  wing. 


BEE  PARASITES. 


117 


from  side  to  side.     It  looked  like  a  little  imp  of  darkness  just 
emerging  from  the  infernal  regions." 

The  above  description  will  serve  to  give  the  reader  a  pretty  good 
idea  of  the  mode  in  which  these  insects  are  to  be  found,  for  they 
are  all  parasitic  upon  different  species  of  bees  and  wasps  ;  but  the 
venerable  and  distinguished  discoverer  of  these  strange  insects 
was  in  error  in  describing  the  soft,  grub-like  creature  which  he 
first  pulled  out  of  the  body  of  the  bee  as  the  larva,  it  being  in 
reality  the  female,  and  the  little  "  imp  of  darkness,"  whose 
emergence  is  so  graphically  described,  is  the  male  Stylops. 


J 

\^i 

FIG.  116. — a,  b,  FEMALE;  d,  PITA;  e,  MALE  OF  STYLOPS. 

The  true  larva,  a  soft,  maggot-like  creature,  resides  in  the  inte- 
rior of  the  grub  of  the  bee,  and  in  the  interior  of  the  bee  itself, 
until  it  has  attained  its  full  size,  when  it  undergoes  a  certain 
amount  of  change  :  the  anterior  portion  of  its  body  acquires  a 
horny  consistency,  and  is  pushed  out  between  the  segments  of 
the  bee's  abdomen,  forming  those  little  flattened  bodies  that  first 
arreste  1  Mr.  Kirby's  attention,  and  which  may  frequently  be  found 
upon  the  surface  of  our  early  bees  (Andrana).  This  is  the  only 
change  to  which  the  females  are  subject,  but  the  males  become 
converted  into  true  pupse  within  the  skin  of  the  larva,  and  thus 
lie  sheltered  within  the  body  of  their  victim,  and  separated  from 
the  outer  world  by  the  small  horny  plate  with  which  their  old 
integument  is  surmounted. 

But  the  time  soon  arrives  when  the  delicate  male  insect  is  to 
seek  his  mate  ;  the  horny  cap  gives  way,  and  he  emerges  into  light 
and  air.  A  curious  little  fellow  he  is,  but  not  without  considerable 
pretensions  to  elegance  in  his  appearance.  The  female,  to  whom 
this  elegant,  volatile,  and  active  creature  is  incessant  in  his  devo- 
tions, is  as  different  in  appearance  from  her  mate  as  can  well  be 
imagined.  As  already  stated,  she  resembles  a  soft  fleshy  maggot, 
without  the  least  trace  of  wings  or  limbs,  and  furnished  anteriorly 


n8  LEPIDOPTERA. 

with  a  sort  of  horny  head,  much  flatter  than  the  rest  of  the  body, 
which  can  be  protruded  with  facility  between  the  segments  of  the 
bee's  abdomen.  In  their  earliest  form,  just  after  quitting  the  egg, 
the  larvae  are  remarkably  rapid  in  their  movements,  furnished 
with  six  legs,  by  means  of  which  they  are  enabled  to  run  about 
freely  upon  the  abdomen  of  the  bee,  in  which  their  mother  is  para- 
sitic ;  and  so  numerous  are  they  in  general  that,  according  to  Mr. 
Smith,  this  portion  of  the  infested  animal  often  appears  as  if  it 
were  dusted  over  with  a  whitish  powder,  from  the  crowds  of  these 
minute  larvae  upon  its  surface.  Thus  carried  about  from  flower 
to  flower  amongst  the  hairs  of  the  bee,  some  of  them  are  left  be- 
hind on  every  blossom  she  visits,  where  their  activity  renders  it 
an  easy  matter  for  them  to  attach  themselves  to  the  body  of  the 
next  comer.  By  this  they  are  unconsciously  conveyed  to  its  nest, 
where  they  bury  themselves  in  the  bee  larvae,  and  remain  feeding 
upon  the  substance  of  their  unfortunate  hosts,  until  they  have 
attained  their  full  development.  Nevertheless,  the  stylopizcd  bees, 
as  they  are  called,  fly  about  with  the  same  activity  as  those  which 
are  free  from  such  unwelcome  guests,  and  thus  tend  still  further 
to  diffuse  the  race  of  parasites  by  which  they  are  infested. 

LEPIDOPTEROUS  INSECTS.    ORDER  LEPIDOPTERA.* 

Insects  belonging  to  the  Lepidopterous  Order  are  at  once  recog- 
nizable from  the  structure  of  their  four  ample  wings,  which  are 
generally  thickly  clothed  on  both  surfaces  with  minute  feather-like 

scales,  that  overlap  each  other, 
and  being  of  different  colours 
arranged  in  patterns,  often  form 
a  kind  of  mosaic  work  of  exqui- 
site delicacy  and  beauty.  Their 
mouth  is  adapted  to  pump  up  the 
nectareous  juices  from  the  cups 
of  flowers,  and  is  necessarily  of 

FIG.  117.— SCALES  OF  BUTTERFLY'S  WING.        Considerable    length,     ill    Order    to 

enable  the  insect  to  reach  the  re- 
cesses in  which  the  honied  stores  are  lodged.  When  unfolded, 
the  extraordinary  apparatus  resembles  a  long  double  whip-lash, 
and  if  examined  under  a  microscope,  is  found  to  be  made  of  in- 
numerable rings  connected  together,  and  moved  by  a  double  layer 

*  ACTTI'S,  lepis,  a  scale ;  -Trr^pov,  pteron,  a  wing. 


B  UTTERFLIES.  1 1 9 

of  spiral  muscles,  that  wind  in  opposite  directions.  When  not  in 
use,  this  singular  proboscis  is  coiled  up  into  a  very  small  space, 
and  lodged  beneath  the  head.  The  larvae  are  commonly  known 
by  the  name  of  caterpillars :  they  have  a  soft  cylindrical  body, 
three  pairs  of  horny  legs,  and  from  four  to  ten  pairs  of  false  feet, 
or  "  clingers,"  attached  to  the  hinder  segments,  each  composed  of 
a  circle  of  horny  hooklets  supported  on  a  fleshy  protuberance. 
The  pupa,  called  a  chrysalis,  is  motionless,  and  its  limbs  are  folded 
down  and  covered  with  a  transparent  varnish.  Their  position, 
however,  can  be  generally  distinctly  traced. 

The  Lepidoptera  are  classed  by  entomologists  under  three  great 
sections.  The  Diurnal,  that  only  fly  by  day  ;  the  Crepuscular, 
only  seen  during  the  morning  or  evening  twilight;  and  the  Noc- 
turnal, whose  period  of  activity  is  during  the  night :  each  of 
these  will  require  separate  notice. 

The  Diurnal  Lepidoptera  are— 


z  .'•- 


FIG.  118. — COMMA  BUTTERFLY.  FIG.  IIQ.— WHITE  HA\VTHOKN  BUTTERFLY. 

The  Butterflies  (Paptiionida).  These  beautiful  insects,  true  children  of 
the  sun,  are  arrayed  in  the  most  gorgeous  hues,  their  four  ample  and  broadly- 
expanded  wings  being  painted  with  every  variety  of  brilliant  tints,  arranged 
in  most  diverse  patterns,  sometimes  resplendent  with  metallic  glosses,  often 
flushed  with  rainbow  hues,  that  play  over  the  surface  with  the  changing  light, 
and  often  presenting  that  peculiar  charm  that  results  from  the  association  of 
colours  that  are  complemental  to  each  other.  These  various  hues,  so  charac- 
teristic of  the  Order,  depend  on  the  presence  of  the  minute  feather-like  scales 
with  which  the  wings  are  thickly  clothed.  To  the  naked  eye  they  appeal- 
merely  as  a  fine  dust,  easily  rubbed  off  by  the  finger ;  but  under  the  microscope 
they  are  seen  to  be  thin  transparent  films,  each  attached  by  a  short  stalk  to 
the  surface  of  the  wing,  set  side  by  side  in  close  array,  and  overlapping  each 
other  like  the  scales  of  a  fish.  The  true  butterflies  are  distinguished  by  the 
shape  of  their  antennae,  which  are  long  and  thread-like,  and  generally  termi- 
nated by  a  club-shaped  dilatation  ;  sometimes,  however,  they  are  of  equal 
thickness  throughout,  or  even  thinnest  at  the  end,  where  they  terminate  in  a 
hooked  point.  Most  of  them  when  reposing  have  their  wings  raised  perpen- 
dicularly, so  that  their  backs  touch  each  other,  and  nothing  is  seen  of  them  but 
their  under  surface.  Butterflies  generally  rjass  their  pupa  state  without  any 


120 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


external  protection,  their  chrysalis  being  in  most  cases  either  suspended 
loosely  by  the  tail,  hanging  in  a  perpendicular  position 
from  a  little  button  of  silk  (Fig.  120),  or  having,  in  addi- 
tion to  this  support,  a  girdle  of  silk  passing  round  the 
body  and  fastened  on  each  side,  by  which  the  chrysalis 
is  supported  horizontally  or  obliquely.  These  chrysalids 
are  generally  ornamented  with  gold-coloured  spots,  from 
which  they  receive  their  name ;  moreover,  they  frequently 
present  externally  spines  and  angular  points,  giving  them 
a  very  remarkable  appearance. 

In  the  second  section  of  Lepidopterous  in- 
sects, Crepuscularia,  are  placed 

PUPA  OF' VANESSA.  The  Hawk-Moths  (Sphinx],    These  are  furnished 

with  a  stiff  scaly  spine  upon  the  outer  border  of  their 

lower  wings,  which  is  received  into  a  kind  of  hook,  situated  beneath  the  upper 

pair,  and  keeps  them,  when  in  repose,  in  an  inclined  or  horizontal  position ; 


FIG.  121. — UNICORN  HAWK-MOTH. 

their  antennae  are  for  the  most  part  prismatic  or  angular  in  their  shape,  or 
sometimes  they  are  toothed  like  a  comb.  Their  caterpillars  have  always  six- 
teen feet,  and  their  chrysalids  are  destitute  of  the  angular  projections  which 
frequently  exist  in  those  of  the  Diurnal  species.  They  are,  moreover,  gene- 
rally enclosed  in  a  cocoon,  and  sometimes  buried  in  the  earth.  These  insects 
are  only  seen  on  the  wing  in  the  grey  dawn  of  morning,  or  in  the  evening  twi- 
light. The  type  of  the  family  is  the  genus  Sphinx,  so  called  because  the 
usual  attitude  assumed  by  their  caterpillars  resembles  that  attributed  to  the 
Sphinx  of  ancient  fable.  These  insects  in  their  perfect  state  fly  with  great 


HA  WK-MOTHS.  1 2 1 

rapidity — hence  is  derived  their  name  of  "  Hawk-Moth ;"  they  may  frequently 
be  seen  poising  themselves  on  the  wing  before  the  bells  of  tubular  flowers, 
from  which  they  extract  the  nectar  by  means  of  their  long  and  flexible  pro- 
boscis. The  largest  of  our  native  species  is 

The  Death's-head  Hawk-Moth  (Sphinx  atropos),  so  called  from  a  singular 
mark  resembling  a  skull  and  cross  bones,  which  it  bears  at  the  back  of  its  thorax. 
Probably  on  account  of  its  carrying  these  lugubrious  insignia,  this  fine  insect  is  gene- 
rally looked  on  by  the  ignorant  with  superstitious  dread,  and  its  occasional  twilight 


FIG.  122. — DEATH'S-HEAD  HAWK-MOTH. 

intrusion  into  a  house  is  an  event  commonly  regarded  with  horror.  Yet  it  is  a  harmless 
creature,  except  that  it  will  sometimes  make  its  way  into  a  bee-hive,  and  regale  itself 
with  honey ;  the  bees,  in  some  way  not  understood,  tolerating  its  visits,  although  they 
might  easily  sting  it  to  death.  The  caterpillar  is  very  large,  attaining  a  length  of  five 
or  six  inches  ;  its  colour  is  yellow,  ornamented  with  blue  stripes  on  the  sides  ;  it  feeds 
on  the  leaves  of  the  potato,  the  vine,  and  the  jasmine,  and,  in  the  month  of  August, 
burrows  into  the  earth  to  undergo  its  pupa  change.  The  perfect  insect  makes  its 
appearance  in  the  month  of  September. 

The  Nocturnal  Lepidoptera  always  keep  their  wings  when  at 
rest  in  a  horizontal  or  inclined  position  ;  in  this  respect  they  re- 
semble the  Crepuscular  species,  from  which,  however,  they  are 
easily  distinguished  by  the  shape  of  their  antennas,  which  diminish 
in  size  from  the  base  to  the  point,  or,  in  other  words,  are  setace- 
ous. These  Lepidoptera,  which  are  sometimes  called  Phalenae, 
ordinarily  fly  only  at  night,  or  in  the  evening  after  sunset.  In 
some  species,  the  females  are  without  wings,  or  have  them  very 
small.  Their  chrysalids  are  almost  always  round  or  lodged  in  a 
cocoon. 

This  family  is  very  numerous,  and  is  divided  into  several  tribes ; 
the  most  interesting  is  that  of  the  Bombyces  (Bombyx)*  to  which 
belongs — 

*  /3  V3i>£,  bombyx,  a  silkworm. 


122 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


The  Silkworm  (Bombyx  Mori}. 

Its  caterpillar  has  a  smooth  body,  and  at  its  birth  is  scarcely  aline  in  length, 
but  attains  to  even  more  than  three  inches.  In  this  form  the  silkworm  lives 
about  thirty-four  days,  and  during  that  period  changes  its  skin  four  times.  It 
feeds  on  the  leaves  of  the  mulberry  ;  at  the  time  of  moulting  it  does  not  eat, 
but  after  changing  its  skin  its  appetite  is  doubled.  When  it  is  ready  to  change 
into  a  chrysalis,  it  becomes  flaccid  and  soft,  and  seeks  a  proper  place  where 
to  construct  a  cocoon,  in  which  it  encloses  itself :  the  first  day  is  occupied  in 
attaching,  in  an  irregular  manner,  threads  of  silk  to  neighbouring  objects  to 
support  it ;  on  the  second  day  it  begins  to  multiply  these  threads,  so  as  to  en- 
velope itself,  and  on  the  third  day  it  is  completely  enclosed  in  its  cocoon.  This 


FIG.  123. — SILKWORM  ox  MULBERRY-LEAF. 

nest  is  formed  of  a  single  filament  of  silk  wrapped  around  the  animal,  and  its 
turns  are  glued  together  by  a  kind  of  gum.  It  is  estimated  that  the  length  of 
the  filament  in  an  ordinary  cocoon  is  nine  hundred  feet.  The  form  of  the 
cocoon  is  oval,  and  its  colour  either  yellow  or  white. 

The  Bombyx  remains  in  the  chrysalis  state  in  the  interior  of  its  cocoon  about 
twenty  days,  and  when  it  has  finished  its  metamorphosis,  disgorges  upon  its 
walls  a  peculiar  liquid,  which  softens  it,  and  enables  the  animal  to  make  a 
round  hole  through  which  to  escape.  To  obtain  the  silk  produced  by  these 
animals,  it  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  kill  them  before  they  pierce  the  cocoon, 
and  then  wind  or  reel  off  the  thread  or  filament  of  which  it  is  composed.  To 
unglue  it,  the  cocoons  are  soaked  in  warm  water,  then  the  filaments  of  three 
or  four  are  united  into  one  thread.  That  part  of  the  cocoon  which  cannot  be 
reeled  off  in  this  way  is  carded,  and  constitutes  floss  silk. 

The  mulberry  bombyx  is  not  the  only  moth  that  yields  silk  that 
can  be  usefully  employed.  The  inhabitants  of  Madagascar  make 
use  of  a  species,  the  caterpillars  of  which  live  in  numerous  bands, 


SILKWORMS. 


123 


and  form  a  common  nest,  sometimes  three  feet  high,  containing 
about  five  hundred  cocoons.  The  thread  of  the  tusseh  silkworm 
is  likewise  valuable. 


FIG.  1:4  i  MOTH  AND  EGGS. 


bcoo.v  OF  TCSSEH  SILKWORM. 


The  smaller  moths  are  extremely  numerous  ;  nearly  two  thou- 
sand species  of  them  are  enumerated  as  British.  Many  of  these 
are  very  beautiful,  and  many  more  are  highly  interesting  from 
the  habits  of  their  larvae.  Among  them  we  may  select 

The  Leaf-rollers  (Tortriccs)*  so  named  from  their  habit  of  rolling  up  the 
edges  of  leaves  in  various  forms,  and  so  fastening  them  with  silk  as  to  make 
compact  tubular  cases  in  which  the  larvre  live  (Fig.  1 26).  Others,  having  made 


FIG.  126. —LEAF-ROLLING  CATERPILLAR. 


a  little  tent,  set  it  upright  on  the  leaf  from  which  it  has  been  cut.  These  are 
everywhere  to  be  found  upon  our  trees  and  hedges.  Others,  again,  make  a 
domicile  by  uniting  the  opposite  edges  of  a  leaf,  or  fastening  two  leaves  to- 

*  Tortrix,  pi.  Tortrices.  fern,  of  Tortor,  one  li'ho  tiuists. 


I24 


HEMIPTERA. 


gather  by  means  of  silk,  and  suspend  the  hammock  30  formed  at  the  end  of 
a  silken  thread  from  a  twig,  and  thus  the  little  caterpillar  lodges  securely, 
rocked  by  the  winds. 

The  Moths  (Tmetz),*  whose  caterpillars  frequently  feed  on  cloths  and 
peltry,  are  also  nocturnal  Lepidoptera.  The  clothes-moth,  fur-moth,  grease- 
moth,  green-moth,  and  various  other  destructive  moths,  are  mostly  very  small 
insects— the  largest  of  them  not  measuring,  with  their  wings  expanded,  more 
than  eight-tenths  of  an  inch  across. 


FIG.  127. — SUSPENDED  LEAF  TENTS. 


FIG.  128.— LARVA  OF  CLOTHES-J\!OTH  IN  ITS 
CASE.     (  Mag  nified. ) 


The  Pack-moth  ( Tinea  sarcitclla]  is  but  too  well  known.  Its  caterpillar  lives 
on  cloth  and  other  woollen  stuffs,  weaving  with  their  detached  particles,  mixed  with 
silk,  a  portable  tube,  which  it  lengthens  at  each  end  in  proportion  as  it  grows,  and 
slits  when  too  small,  to  increase  the  diameter  by  inserting  another  piece.  From  this 
circumstance  it  obtains  the  specific  name  of  sarcitella.^ 

The  Feather  Moths  (Fissipennaft  likewise  belong  to  the  Nocturnal  Lepi- 
doptera. This  tribe  is  distinguished  by  the  singular  structure  of  the  wings, 
which,  in  a  state  of  repose,  are  straight  and  elongated.  The  four  wings,  or 
two  of  them  at  least,  are  slit  through  their  whole  length  into  branches,  which 
are  barbed  on  the  sides,  bearing  some  resemblance  to  an  outspread  feather 
fan. 


HEMIPTEROUS  INSECTS.     ORDER  HEMIPTERA.§ 

In  insects  belonging  to  this  Order,  the  elytra,  or  wing-covers, 
present  two  distinct  portions  of  very  different  texture,  their  front 
part  being  stiff  and  leathery,  while  their  hinder  margins  are  mem- 

*  Tinea,  Lat.     A  moth  or  worm  in  clothes  or  books  :  "dirum  Tinese  genus."    Virgil, 

Georg.  iv.  246.  f  Sarcio,  I  patch.  %  Lat.  Fissus,  cleft ;  penna,  a  wing. 

§  rj/u<rus,  hemisus,  half;  irrfyov,  pteron,  a  wing. 


BUGS.  125 


branous  and  thin.  It  may  likewise  be  noted  that  the  membran- 
ous portion  of  one  wing  when  in  a  state  of  repose  overlaps  that 
of  its  fellow.  Their  mouth  is  adapted  for  piercing  the  skin  and 
imbibing  the  juices  of  the  animals  upon  which  they  live.  Instead 
of  cutting  jaws,  such  as  we  have  met  with  in  the  mandibulate 
orders  of  insects,  we  now  find  the  parts  of  the  mouth  to  consist 
of  a  long  beak,  or  rostrum,  along  the  upper  surface  of  which  runs 
a  groove,  wherein  are  lodged  four  long,  sharp-pointed  filaments, 
that  constitute  a  kind  of  sting.  The  Hemiptera  retain  in  all  the 
three  stages  of  their  growth  the  same  form  and  the  same  habits ; 
the  only  change  that  they  undergo  consists  in  the  development 
of  their  wings,  the  rudiments  of  which  first  make 
their  appearance  when  they  enter  into  the  pupa 
state.  These  insects  are  usually  known  by  the 
general  name  of  Bugs,  a  term  which  in  itself  is 
sufficient  to  cast  obloquy  upon  the  whole  race ; 
many  of  them,  however,  are  large  and  richly 
coloured,  and  we  have  seen  one  preserved  in  fluid, 
and  set  in  a  brooch,  which  rivalled  many  a  gem 
in  beauty  and  in  brilliancy.  They  usually  lurk 
about  plants,  and  prey  upon  hapless  insects,  into 
FIG.  i29.-FiELD  BL-G.  whose  bodies  they  plunge  their  piercing  sucker, 

and  thus  obtain  their  food. 

The  Hemiptera  are  divided  by  naturalists  into  two  great  sec- 
tions, named  respectively  Geocorysae  *  and  HydrocoryS8B,t 
two  very  hard  words,  which,  however,  when  translated  into  plain 
English,  mean  Land-bugs  and  Water-bugs.  Of  the  former  of 
these  sections  we  have  already  spoken,  but  the  latter  will  require 
a  few  words  of  notice. 

Perhaps  no  locality  could  be  pointed  out  more  abounding  in 
food  than  the  surface  of  stagnant  water.  Countless  insects  are 
continually  falling  into  every  pond,  where  their  drowned  carcases 
may  be  seen  floating.  It  is  to  utilize  this  abundant  store  of  pro- 
visions that  the  Hydrocorysae  have  been  specially  constructed. 
Such,  for  example,  are 

The  Water-measurers  or  Skip-jacks  (Hydrometra)&  anywhere  to  be 
seen  in  summer-time,  in  every  ditch,  running  upon  the  surface  of  the  water 
with  as  much  activity  as  though  it  was  frozen  into  ice,  and  not  even  wetting 
their  feet.  These,  from  above,  are  reaping  a  rich  harvest  of  dead  flies,  which 
they  peirce  with  their  beaks  and  suck  their  juices  ;  while,  from  below, 

*  Yn>  ge>  the  earth  ;  /f6pts,  coris,  a  bug.  f  SSup,  udor,  -water  ;  if6pis,  cons,  a  bug. 

+  vdwp,  udor,  -water ;  /ier/sew,  metreo,  /  measure. 


126 


HEMIPTERA. 


FIG.  130. — METAMORPHOSES  OF  WATER-BOATMAN. 

The  Water-boatmen  (Notonectd)*  are  eagerly  engaged  in  sharing  such 
an  abundant  supply  of  nutriment.     These  Notonectae  swim  upon  their  backs, 


FIG.  170.  — WATER-SCORPION. — DIFFERENT   STATES  OF  NEPA. 


*  v WTOS,  notos,  the  back ;  i^/cr^s,  nectes,  a  swimmer. 


PLANT-SUCKING  INSECTS.  127 


using  their  long  hind  legs  as  oars,  and  thus  they  dart  on  any  drowning  fly  that 
happens  to  attract  their  notice. 

The  Water-Scorpion  (Nepa),  an  inhabitant  of  every  pool,  procures  its 
food  upon  the  stems  of  submerged  plants,  or  creeps  in  search  of  it  about  the 
bottom  of  the  pond.  This  insect  is  able  to  inflict  a  very  painful  wound  if 
seized  incautiously,  by  means  of  its  strong  well-armed  beak. 


PLANT-SUCKING  INSECTS.    ORDER  HOMOPTERA.* 

As  the  Hemiptera  were  obviously  designed  to  obtain  their  food 
by  imbibing  the  juices  of  dead  or  of  living  animals,  it  can  be  no 
matter  of  surprise  to  find  races  of  insects  much  more  numerous 
and  important,  appointed  to  feed  upon  the  sap  of  plants,  and 
that  by  means  of  a  mouth  of  a  very  similar  construction. 

The  Homopterous  Insects,  or  Plant-suckers,  as  they  have 
been  named,  are  furnished  with  four  large  wings,  all  of  which  are 
transparent  and  but  loosely  veined.  By  means  of  these  they  fly 
from  plant  to  plant,  the  juices  of  which  seem  to  be  specially 
appropriated  to  their  use.  Such  are 

The  Tree-hoppers  (Cicada],  some  of  them  celebrated  for  their  noisy 
music.  The  Cicadas  pass  their  lives  upon  trees  or  shrubs,  upon  the  sap  of 
which  they  live. 

The  Plant-Lice  (Aphides)  are  small  Homopterous  insects.  They  abound 
in  every  garden,  living  on  trees  and 
plants  in  countless  multitudes ;  indeed, 
the  fecundity  of  these  creatures  seems 
absolutely  boundless.  It  has  been  cal- 
culated that  if  a  male  Aphis  were  to 
live  to  see  his  progeny  of  the  fifth  gene- 
ration gathered  around  him,  he  would 
find  himself  the  great -great -grand- 
father of  nine  billions  nine  hundred 
and  four  millions  of  Aphides ;  or,  in 
other  words,  of  a  family  about  fifty  times 
more  numerous  than  all  the  human  in- 
habitants of  this  globe.  With  such  a 
fact  before  us,  we  leave  our  readers 
to  judge  what  might  be  the  result  of 
their  undisturbed  multiplication.  In 
the  course  of  a  few  months,  even  these 
apparently  despicable  plant-lice  would  FIG.  131.— LIME-TREE  APHIS. 

become  a  plague  as  terrible  as  any  with  (The  lines  Wlder  **fe™  sh™ tlie  ******* 
which  the  world  has  been  visited.   For- 
tunately, even  here,  the  balance  between  increase  and  destruction  is  held  with 
an  unwavering  hand,  so  that  when  we  notice  the  innumerable  enemies  by 

*  ofj.bs,  homos,  simitar ;  Trrtyov,  pteron,  a  iving. 


128  HOMOPTERA. 


which  their  legions  are  unremittingly  attacked,  we  are  almost  led  to  wonder 
how  any  of  them  escape  from  such  hosts  of  hungry  and  relentless  foes. 

Let  us  not  imagine,  however,  that  these  insects  have  been  created  in  such 
numbers  merely  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  vegetation  and  of  affording  food 
to  voracious  persecutors.  Man,  as  we  shall  soon  perceive,  has  by  no  means 
been  forgotten  in  their  distribution. 

The  Coccidse,  so  called  from  the  valuable  Grecian  dye,  R-O/CKO?,  more  than 
counterbalance,  by  the  richness  of  their  productions,  all  the  devastation  caused 
by  the  Aphides  we  have  been  describing,  and  various  European  and  Asiatic 
species  are  sources  of  considerable  wealth  to  the  countries  where  they  are 
found ;  but  the  discovery  of 

The  Cochineal  Insect  (Coccus  Cacti],  which  lives  in  immense  numbers  on  the 
Cactus  Cochinilifer,  from  the  brilliancy  of  the  colour  it  affords  (cochineal),  has  thrown 
the  dyes  derived  from  other  species  into  the  shade,  and  has  proved  one  of  the  most 
productive  sources  of  wealth  to  the  countries  where  it  is  cultivated.  Another  important 
species,  the  Coccus  lacca,  furnishes  the  valuable  Indian  product  called  lac,  an  article 
of  so  much  importance  in  the  manufacture  of  varnishes,  sealing-wax,  &c.  Another 


Ufper  surface.  Under  surface. 

FIG.  131.*— COCHINEAL  INSECT  (Magnified). 

species  of  Coccus  is  found  upon  the  Tamarix  mannifera,  a  large  tree  which  grows  in 
Syria.  The  female  insects,  puncturing  the  young  shoots,  cause  them  to  discharge  a 
vast  quantity  of  a  peculiar  secretion  (manna),  which  quickly  hardens,  and  drops  from 
the  tree,  where  it  is  collected  by  the  natives.  Other  species  produce  in  abundance  a 
substance  almost  identical  with  wax.  The  Chinese  collect  it  at  the  approach  of  autumn 
by  scraping  the  boughs  on  which  it  is  found.  It  is  then  melted  and  strained  into  cold 
water,  when  it  hardens,  and  is  made  into  cakes  exactly  resembling  white  wax,  and  is 
used  for  similar  purposes.  Various  other  important  results  of  their  industry  might  be 
enumerated ;  but  we  have  said  enough  to  show  that  these  despised  vegetable  parasites 
are  by  no  means  unprofitable  members  of  the  animal  creation. 

Equally  well  known,  and  unfortunately  almost  as  abundant  as 
the  Aphides,  are 

The  Blight  Insects  (Psylla\  the  pests  of  our  orchards  and  the  destruc- 
tive causes  of  what  is  called  the  "  blight "  upon  our  fruit-trees.  It  would  seem, 
indeed,  that  every  tree  and  shrub  supports  a  special  race  of  these  creatures, 
which  are  distinguished  by  entomologists  by  the  names  of  the  plants  upon 
which  they  are  found.  In  the  preparatory  stages  of  their  growth  these  insects 
are  generally  covered  with  a  white  cottony  substance,  matted  together  with  a 
sweet  and  gummy  secretion. 


GNATS.  129 


The  Lantern  Flies  (Fulgora)  are  distinguished  by  the  extraordinary 
conformation  of  their  heads,  which  are  expanded  into  an  enormous  muzzle, 
nearly  equalling  in  size  all  the  rest  of  the  body.  They  have  long  had  the 
reputation  of  emitting  a  brilliant  phosphorescent  light ;  but  whether  they 
possess  such  a  faculty  or  not  is  extremely  doubtful. 


T  \YO-WINGED  INSECTS.    ORDER  DIPTERA.* 

The  insects  belonging  to  this  Order  possess  but  a  single  pair 
of  wings,  which  are  always  transparent,  veined,  and  without  folds. 
The  place  of  the  hind  wrings  is  occupied  by  a  pair  of  slender  fila- 
ments called  poisers ;  their  mouth  is  adapted  for  suction,  and  in 
many  species  is  supplied  with  piercing  instruments  of  very  for- 
midable character. 

To  this  Order  belong 

The  Gnats  (Culex),  known  in  foreign  countries  as  Mosquitoes,  and  univer- 
sally dreaded  on  account  of  the  sharpness  of  their  envenomed  bite.  They  are 
are  the  most  insolent,  the  most  insatiable,  of  blood-suckers.  Their  terrible 
proboscis  is  a  chef-d'ceuvre  of  mechanism.  From  a  long  grooved  and  flexile 
sheath  there  issue  forth  long  slender  darts,  so  sharp  and  subtle  that  they  slip 
with  ease  through  our  poor  skins :  vainly  we  try,  warned  by  the  shrill  small 
trumpet  of  the  little  pest,  to  ward  off  such  a  despicable  foe ;  too  soon  our  legs 
and  hands  and  face,  pierced  to  the  blood,  covered  with  lumps  and  painful 
swellings,  proclaim  the  efficiency  of  the  dreadful  weapon.  Neither  heat  nor 
cold  seems  to  affect  these  tormentors  of  the  human  race.  In  Lapland  they 
swarm  to  such  an  extent  during  certain  periods  of  the  year,  that  there  is  neither 
rest  nor  sleep  for  the  inhabitants  indoors  or  out,  unless  in  the  suffocation  of 
thick  smoke,  or  under  the  defence  of  a  thick  unguent  composed  of  grease,  tar, 
and  oil. 

The  transformations  of  the  Common  Gnat  (Citlex  pipiens]  are  well  worthy 
of  our  attention,  and  may  be  observed  in  any  water-butt.  The  female  gnat, 
descending  from  her  aerial  dance  among  the  slanting  beams  of  sunset,  alights 
cautiously  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  where  the  lightness  of  her  body  and 
the  expanse  covered  by  her  slender  feet  prevent  her  not  only  from  sinking, 
but  even  from  becoming  wetted.  She  then  crosses  her  hind  legs,  thus  making 
a  sort  of  frame  on  which  her  eggs  are  deposited,  in  the  shape  of  a  little  boat, 
so  buoyant  and  so  repellent  to  the  water  that  it  is  impossible  to  sink  it.  In 
the  course  of  a  couple  of  days  the  eggs,  thus  left  to  float,  are  hatched,  and  the 
larvae  escape;  they  may  then  be  seen  wriggling  about  with  considerable 
agility,  now  descending,  now  ascending  slowly  to  the  surface,  where  they  hang 
suspended  from  a  little  tube  affixed  to  their  tail,  through  which  they  breathe 
the  air.  In  about  a  fortnight  they  change  into  pupse,  equally  active,  but  very 
different  in  their  shape,  for  instead  of  the  respiratory  tube  near  the  tail  pos- 
sessed by  the  larva,  the  pupa  breathes  by  means  of  two  trumpet-shaped  pipes 
affixed  to  the  back  of  the  thorax.  The  time  at  length  arrives  when  the  aquatic 
pupa  has  to  give  birth  to  an  insect  whose  filmy  wings  would  be  spoiled  by  the 

*  St's,  dis,  twice,  double;  irrtpov,  pteron,  awing. 


130 


DIPTERA. 


slightest  wetting.  The  process  by  which  this  is  accomplished  affords  a  very 
interesting  spectacle.  The  pupa  having  risen  to  the  surface,  elevates  its 
thorax  above  the  water,  the  skin  soon  splits  down  the  back  and  exposes  the 


FIG,  132. — LARVA  OF  GNAT. 


FIG.  133. — ESCAPE  OF  GNAT  FROM  ITS  PUPA-C 


fore-parts  of  the  gnat,  which  are  quickly  protruded,  and  the  gnat,  floating  on 
its  old  skin  as  in  a  boat,  extricates  its  wings  from  their  cases  and  its  legs  from 
their  boots.  The  wings  unfold  themselves,  and  the  little  creature  flies  away 
to  enjoy  its  new  existence  in  another  element. 


FIG.  134.—  METAMORPHOSES  OF  PLUMED  GNAT. 

The  Crane-Plies  (Tipula)  constitute  a  very  numerous  race,  some  of 
which  are  nearly  related  to  the  gnats,  and  pass  the  first  period' of  their  exist- 
ence in  the  water.  In  their  larva  state  they  resemble  little  red  worms,  having 


DADD  Y-LONG-LEGS. 


their  tails  furnished  with  long  curling  filaments,  somewhat  resembling  the 
arms  of  a  hydra,  hence  they  have  been  called  "  Polype  worms :"  these  are  often 

found  in  ponds  in  great  numbers. 
Their  nymphs,  which  inhabit  the 
snme  element,  resemble  those  of 
the  gnats  above  described,  and 
the  escape  of  the  perfect  insect  is 
managed  precisely  in  the  same 
manner.  Other  Tipulae,  as  for 
example, 
The  Daddy- long-legs  (77- 

fnla  oleracea],  so  commonly  met  with 
amongst  the  grass  in  our  meadows, 
are  derived  from  larvos  that  live  in 
the  ground,  or  are  found  in  old  bark 
or  rotten  trees.  Their  nymphs  are 
naked,  breathe  by  means  of  two  re- 
spiratory tubes  situated  near  the 
FIG.  i35.-P.PA  AND  INSECT  OF  CHIRONOMVS.  g^  ^  haye  the  rf  of  thdr 

abdomen  covered  with  little  spines. 

The  Whame  Flies  (Tabanus),  terrible  from  their  bloodthirstiness,  have 
-appended  to  their  proboscis  six  lancets  so  strong  as  to  penetrate  the  skin  of 
the  horse.  These  insects,  which  generally  make  their  appearance  towards 
the  close  of  spring,  are  common  in  woods  and  pastures.  They  fly  with  a  buzz- 
ing sound,  and  pursue  even  man  himself  in  order  to  suck  his  blood.  The  un- 
fortunate cattle,  having  no  means  of  resisting  their  attacks,  are  sometimes 
covered  with  blood  owing  to  the  bites  of  these  insects;  and  Bruce,  the  Abys- 
sinian traveller,  speaks  of  one  species  before  which  even  the  lion  quails.  Their 
larvae  are  long  cylindrical  maggots,  tapering  towards  the  head,  which  is  pro- 
vided with  a  pair  of  hooks  instead  ot  jaws.  Their  pupa  is  naked,  nearly 
cylindrical,  with  hairs  around  the  edges  of  its  segments,  and  provided  with 
six  spines  at  its  hinder  extremity:  it  comes  to  the  surface  of  the  ground  when 
about  to  be  transformed  into  the  perfect  fly,  showing  its  body  half  out  of  the 
earth. 

The  TsetsB,  described  by  Dr.  Livingstone,  is  perhaps  the  most  formidable 
of  the  entire  class.  It  is  not  much  larger  than  the  common  house-fly,  and  is 
nearly  of  the  same  brown  colour  as  the  honey-bee.  The  bite  of  this  poisonous 
insect  is  certain  death  to  the  ox,  horse,  and  dog;  but  is  perfectly  harmless  to 
man,  wild  animals,  and  even  calves  as  long  as  they  continue  to  suck.  Its 
poison  is  inserted  by  the  middle  prong  of  three  portions  into  which  the  pro- 
boscis divides,  which  it  plunges  deeply  into  the  skin  exactly  in  the  bame  manner 
as  a  gnat,  and  then  sucks  the  blood  until  it  is  filled.  A  slight  itching  irritation 
follows,  but  not  more  than  that  produced  by  the  bite  of  a  mosquito.  In  the 
ox  this  same  bite  produces  no  more  immediate  effects  than  in  man ;  but  in  a 
few  days  the  poor  bitten  creature  sickens  and  dies.  This  terrible  insect  is, 
fortunately,  confined  to  certain  parts  of  Africa. 

The  Chameleon  Flies  (Stratyomys),  so  called  from  the  variety  of  their 
colours,  are  a  very  harmless  race,  remarkable  on  account  of  the  phenomena 
attending  their  metamorphosis.  Their  larvae  are  to  be  found  in  ditches 
abounding  with  filth ,  their  bodies  are  long,  flattened,  and  tapering  towards 
each  extremity;  their  skin  is  of  a  horny  or  leathery  texture,  and  their  tail  is 
surrounded  by  long  plume-like  hairs,  that  encircle  the  orifice  through  which 

9—2 


132 


DIPTERA. 


FIG.  136.— LARVA  OF  STRATVO.MYS. 


they  breathe.  The  skin  of  the  larva  is  not  cast  off,  but  becomes  the  cocoon 
of  the  pupa,  simply  growing  stiff  and  angular.  In  this  condition  it  may  be 
found  floating  on  the  water.  When  the  perfect  insect  is  complete,  it  escapes 
through  a  fissure  in  the  second  segment,  and  after  cruising  about  for  a  little 
time,  supported  by  its  old  integument  so  as  to  allow  its  wings  to  dry,  it  takes 
flight. 


FIG.  137. — WASP-FLIES. 


The  Wasp  Plies  (Eristalts\  everywhere  to  be  seen  on  a  hot  day,  hover- 
ing before  the  flowers  in  our  gardens,  and  darting  here  and  there  with  sudden 


FLESH-FLIES.  133 


jerking  movements,  commence  their  lives  under  a  very  different  aspect.  Their 
larvae  are  provided  with  a  breathing  apparatus,  which  resembles  the  tail  of  a 
rat,  and  which  they  are  able  to  elongate  or  shorten,  so  as  always  to  keep  its 
tubular  extremity  above  the  surface  of  the  filthy  stuff  in  which  these  creatures 
live.  They  are  often  found  in  great  numbers  in  old  tubs  that  contain  stink- 
ing rain-water 

The  Gad-Flies  (Oestrus]  have  much  the  appearance  of  humble-bees,  and 
the  hairs  that  densely  clothe  their  bodies  are  in  like  manner  bounded  with 
yellow-coloured  zones.  They  are  fortunately  not  very  common,  the  time  of 
their  appearance  and  the  districts  they  inhabit  being  limited.  There  are 
several  species  of  these  dreaded  flies,  each  of  which  passes  its  larva  condition 
as  a  parasite,  living  at  the  expense  of  some  particular  quadruped.  The  horse, 
the  ox,  the  ass,  the  reindeer,  the  stag,  the  antelope,  the  camel,  the  sheep,  and 


FIG.  138.— GAD-FLIES. 

the  hare  are,  however,  the  cn'v  animals  certainly  known  to  be  subject  to  their 
attacks,  and  these  all  seem  to  be  inspired  with  a  special  dread  of  their  tor- 
mentors. Of  these  lame,  some  are  deposited  under  the  skin  of  the  backs  of 
cows  by  means  of  a  peculiarly  constructed  ovipositor  with  which  the  females 
are  provided.  The  eggs  of  others  are  simply  glued  to  the  skin  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  nose  of  sheep  and  deer,  whence  the  maggots  creep  into  the  nostrils  of 
the  poor  animal,  where  they  reside.  The  larvae  of  a  third  kind  are  only  to  be 
met  with  in  the  stomach  of  the  horse,  where  alone  they  find  a  suitable  resi- 
dence :  in  this  situation  they  are  called  bots.  The  manner  in  which  they  are 
introduced  into  such  a  strange  locality  is  very  ingenious.  The  fly,  when  lay- 
ing her  eggs,  may  be  seen  balancing  herself  in  the  air  and  glueing  them  to 
such  parts  as  the  horse  is  in  the  habit  of  licking  with  his  tongue,  and  thus  he 
is  made  unconsciously  to  introduce  them  into  their  proper  nursery.  These 
larvae  are  footless,  of  an  oval  shape,  and  banded  with  circles  of  hooks,  where- 
by they  attach  themselves.  When  mature  they  are  expelled,  and,  falling  to 
the  ground,  bury  themselves  in  the  earth,  where  their  last  change  is  accom- 
plished. 

The  Flesh-Flies  (Mused)  are  too  welt  known  to  need  description.  These 
creatures  deposit  their  progeny  in  tainted  or  in  putrefying  flesh,  and  notwith- 
standing the  petty  injury  they  inflict  in  our  larders,  they  must  be  looked  upon 
as  being  among  the  most  important  agents  employed  in  the  police  of  Nature. 
Death  is  everywhere  abroad,  but  the  earth  is  not  permitted  to  be  long  defaced 
by  the  presence  of  decay.  No  sooner  does  the  carcase  fall  than  these, 

"The  swiftest  of  His  winged  messengers," 

are  set  to  work,  and  speedily  remove  the  offensive  carrion.  Linnaeus  asserted 
that  three  flesh-flies  could  devour  a  dead  horse  in  less  time  than  it  would  take 


134 


THYSANOURA. 


a  lion  to  effect  the  same  object ;  and  a  little  consideration  will  show  that  the 
expression  is  not  exaggerated.  The  hungry  lion  can  but  make  a  meal,  and 
then  must  wait  for  his  returning  appetite.  The  flesh-fly  brings  her  twenty 


FIG.  139. — METAMORPHOSES  OF  FLESH-FLY. 


thousand  young  ones,  ready  for  the  work.  Each  of  these  for  five  days  is  con- 
stantly employed  ;  and  when  we  consider  that  these  voracious  maggots,  in 
that  space  of  time,  increase  in  weight  two  hundredfold,  and  that  they  are 
further  capable  of  giving  birth  in  a  short  time  to  other  insect  legions,  we  per- 
ceive at  once  their  adaptation  to  the  important  duty  thus  intrusted  to  them. 


FIG.  140.  -  DOMESTIC  FLY  {Magnified). 

The  Spider  Flies  (Hippobosca)*  are  parasitic,  and,  strange  to  say,  their 
females  give  birth  to  pupae  instead  of  eggs  or  larva:,  hence  they  have  been 
designated  Pupipara.^  These  pupae  are  of  considerable  size,  and  at  first  very 
soft,  but  their  skin  soon  hardens  into  a  pupa-case.  These  insects  are  re- 
markable from  having  no  wings.  Some  of  them  inhabit  the  nest  of  birds,  and 
live  by  sucking  the  blood  of  the  little  nestlings,  whose  warmth  contributes  to 
their  development. 

The  Forest  Fly  (Hippobosca  equina)  is  notorious  for  its  incessant  attacks 
upon  horses  ;  and  in  some  districts  appears  in  great  numbers.  Another  species 
conceals  itself  in  the  wool  of  sheep,  from  which  animals  it  derives  its  food  ; 
and  there  are  some  not  furnished  with  wings,  that  are  exclusively  resident  in 
the  hair  of  bats. 

TUFT-TAILED  INSECTS.    ORDER  THYSANOURA.J 

These  insects  are  without  wings,  and  undergo  no  metamor- 
phosis. They  are  distinguished  by  the  possession  of  peculiar 


j,  hippos,  a  horse  ;  /36cr/cw,  bosco,  to  feed  on. 
fPupa,  a  fupa;  pario,  I  bring  forth.     I  dv<ravos,  thysanos,  a  tuff  ;  ovpd,  oura,  a  tail. 


PARASITES.  135 


instruments  of  locomotion,  appended  to  the  extremity  of  their 
abdomen.  (Fig.  141.)  The  Order  includes  but  two  genera,  the 
Sugar-Lice  and  the  Spring-tails. 

The  Sugar-Lice  (Lepisma)baye  a  row  of  filaments  attached  to  the  hind- 
most ring  of  the  body,  three  of  which  are  of  considerable  length,  and  by  their 
assistance  the  Lepisma  leaps  into  the  air.  Their  legs  are  short,  but  they  run 
with  great  swiftness.  Many  species  of  these  insects  lurk  in  the  chinks  of 
window-sashes  that  are  seldom  opened,  or  they  hide  under  wet  planks  and 
in  cellars 

The  Spring-tails  (Poduro)  have  their  tail  terminated  by  two  stiff  spines, 
which  are  usually  bent  under  the  body.  By  suddenly  extending  this  apparatus, 
which  acts  as  a  spring,  the  insect  leaps  into  the  air  like  a  skip-jack,  and  falls 
upon  its  back.  The  Podurae  are  found  under  the  bark  of  trees,  or  sometimes 
on  the  surface  of  stagnant  water,  or  even  of  snow.  They  are  generally  con- 
gregated together  in  considerable  numbers,  and  have  very  much  the  appear- 
ance of  grains  of  gunpowder. 


FIG.  141.— ARCTIC  SPRING-TAIL.  FIG.  142.— LOCSE. 


PARASITES.    ORDER  PARASITA. 

The  Parasita  are  wingless  insects  that  do  not  undergo  meta- 
morphosis, and  whose  abdomen  is  without  any  terminal  appendage 
(Fig.  142).  Their  mouth  is  adapted  for  suction,  their  body  is  flat- 
tened, and,  as  their  name  indicates,  they  live  upon  other  animals. 
They  are,  however,  only  met  with  in  mammals  and  birds.  They 
are  generally  known  by  the  names  of 

Lice  (Pediculus)  and  Ticks  (Ricinus).  The  latter,  with  the  exception  of 
the  Dog-tick,  only  infest  birds.  These  insects,  by  means  of  prehensile  claws 
with  which  their  feet  are  armed,  cling  to  the  hairs  of  quadrupeds  and  the 
leathers  of  birds,  in  which  situation  they  pass  their  lives,  and  sometimes 
multiply  very  rapidly.  They  fasten  their  eggs,  which  are  called  nits,  to  the 
hairs  or  feathers  upon  which  they  climb. 


136 


APHANIPTERA. 


INSECTS  WITH  IMPERCEPTIBLE  WINGS.    ORDER 
APHANIPTERA.* 

These  insects,  like  those  belonging  to  the  preceding  Order,  are 
wingless,  .but  they  undergo  a  metamorphosis.  Their  body  is  very 
much  compressed  at  the  sides,  and  the  legs  are  formed  for  leaping. 
The  mouth  is  -provided  with  lancets,  and  performs  the  functions 
of  a  sucking  apparatus.  In  their  larva  state  they  resemble  little 
worms,  and  are  quite  destitute  of  feet.  The  perfect  insect  lives 
upon  quadrupeds  and  birds.  This  Order  comprehends — 

The  Pleas  (Pulex).  The  Common  Flea  (Pnlez,  irritans]  lives  upon  dogs, 
cats,  and  men,  whose  blood  it  sucks.  The  female  lays  about  a  dozen  eggs, 
white  and  slightly  viscid.  These  eggs  give  birth  to  larvas,  which  are  very 


FIG.  143.— METAMORPHOSES  OF  THE  FLEA. 

active.  They  roll  themselves  up  into  a  spiral  circular  form,  and  wriggle  about 
like  minute  serpents  (Fig.  143,  a,  b,  c}.  In  about  twelve  days  these  larvas  en- 
close themselves  in  a  little  cocoon,  where  they  become  nymphs  (d],  and  in 
about  twelve  days  more  issue  forth  in  their  perfect  state  (<?). 

Another  species  called  the  Chigoe  (Pulex  penetrans),  very  common  in  the 
warm  parts  of  America,  is  armed  with  a  beak  as  long  as  its  body.  The  abdo- 
men of  the  female,  when  distended  with  eggs,  grows  to  the  size  of  a  small  pea, 
while  the  insect  itself  is  scarcely  so  large  as  our  common  species.  It  insinuates 
itself  beneath  the  skin  and  into  the  flesh  of  men  and  other  animals,  particu- 
larly about  the  feet  and  toes,  where  it  deposits  its  eggs  and  sometimes  causes 
great  pain  and  ill-conditioned  sores.  The  only  remedy  is  to  remove  the  eggs, 
which  are  enclosed  in  a  little  bag,  with  a  needle,  an  operation  which  the' 
negroes  perform  very  skilfully. 


,  aphanes,  hidden  ;  Trrepov,  pteron,  a  - 


ARACHNIDANS. 


The  Thysanoura,  Parasita,  and  Aphaniptera.  having  no  wings, 
are  frequently  spoken  of  under  the  general  name  of  Aptera,  or 
Apterous  (i.e.,  wingless)  insects.  All  the  other  Orders  of  insects 
have  wings,  and  are  spoken  of  as  "  winged  insects? 


FIG.  144. — SPIDERS. 


CHAPTER   XII. 

FOURTH  CLASS  OF  ARTICULATED  ANIMALS. 
ARACHNIDANS.* 

THE  Arachnidans,  long  confounded  with  the  Insects,  and 
still  commonly  described  as  such,  are  distinguished  from 
the  true  members  of  the  insect  world  by  characters  so  conspicuous, 
that  the  necessity  for  considering  them  as  a  distinct  class  must 
be  obvious  to  any  one. 

In   Insects,  as  we  have  seen  above,  the  body  presents  three 


arachne,  a  spider. 


138  ARACHNIDANS. 


principal  divisions,  the  head,  the  thorax,  and  the  abdomen  ;  but  in 
the  spider  tribes,  the  bloodthirsty  destroyers  of  the  insect  world, 
the  separation  of  the  head  from  the  thorax,  which,  by  increasing 
the  flexibility  of  the  external  framework,  diminishes  the  strength 
of  the  body,  is  no  longer  admissible.  In  the  Arachnidans,  there- 
fore, the  head  and  thorax  are  conjoined,  leaving  only  two  divisions 
of  the  skeleton,  the  cephalo-thorax*  and  the  abdomen. 

Insects  were  found,  in  their  mature  state,  to  have  only  six  legs, 
but  in  the  adult  Arachnidans  eight  ambulatory  limbs  are  always 
present.  The  lower  forms  of  the  Arachnidans  breathe  in  the  same 
manner  as  insects,  by  means  of  air-tubes  distributed  throughout 
the  interior  of  their  bodies  ;  but  in  spiders  and  scorpions,  the  most 
typical  groups,  the  respiratory  apparatus  is  constructed  upon  very 
peculiar  principles,  being  neither  composed  of  gills  adapted  to 
breathe  water,  nor  of  lungs  like  those  of  many  other  air-breathing 
animals,  but  presenting  a  combination  of  the  characters  of  both. 
Their  breathing  organs  resemble  bags,  the  sides  of  which  are  so 
folded  and  plaited  that  a  considerable  surface  is  presented  to  the 
influence  of  oxygen.  It  is,  indeed,  highly  probable  that  these 
organs  are  intermediate  in  function,  as  well  as  in  structure,  be- 
tween an  aquatic  and  an  air-breathing  apparatus,  for  as  these 
creatures  always  frequent  moist  situations,  the  dampness  of  the 
atmosphere  may  be  favourable  to  the  due  action  of  the  air  upon 
their  circulating  fluids.  To  these  remarkable  breathing  organs 
thztevmpulmo-branchice  has  been  applied,  a  name  descriptive  of 
their  combined  function  of  lungs  and  gills.  Each  pnlmo-branchia 
opens  externally  upon  the  under  surface  of  the  body  by  a  distinct 
orifice,  resembling  the  spiracle  of  an  insect,  and  closed  in  a  similar 
manner  by  moveable  horny  lips.  In  the  scorpion  (Fig.  55),  the 
spiracles  are  eight  in  number,  placed  upon  the  ventral  aspect  of 
the  trunk  ;  and  just  in  front  of  the  first  pair  are  two  remarkable 
organs,  represented  in  the  figure,  which  resemble  a  pair  of  combs, 
and  are  apparently  adapted  to  keep  the  spiracular  orifices  free 
from  dirt,  and  thus  prevent  any  obstruction  to  the  free  ingress 
and  egress  of  the  air. 

The  above  characters  would  in  themselves  be  sufficient  to  dis- 
criminate between  the  two  classes ;  but  when  we  add  that,  in  the 
Arachnidans,  the  eyes  are  always  simple,  and  the  antennae  of 
insects  represented  by  organs  of  a  totally  different  description,  we 
need  not  enlarge  further  upon  the  distinctions  between  them. 

cephale,  the  head;  and  6upa%,  thorax,  breast-plate. 


SCORPIONS. 


139 


The  Arachnidans  may  be  grouped  in  three  principal  divisions, 
generally  known  by  the  names  of  Mites,  Scorpions  and  Spiders. 

The  Mites  (Acari)  breathe  by  means  of  air-tubes,  resembling 
those  of  insects,  which  are  so  arranged  as  to  convey  air  to  every 
part  of  the  system. 


FIG.  145. — HEAD  OF  CHEESE-MITE. 

These  form  a  very  numerous  family,  which  is  extensively  dis- 
tributed. Some  are  parasitic  in  their  habits,  infesting  the  bodies 
of  insects  ;  many  live  in  cheese,  and  other  provisions,  where  they 
multiply  prodigiously  ;  and  not  a  few  inhabit  leaves,  or  are  found 
under  stones  and  beneath  the  bark  of  trees  ;  while  others,  such  as 
the  pretty  scarlet  water-mite,  common  in  every  pond,  are  aquatic. 

The  Scorpions,  forming  the  second  division,  are  at  once  re- 
cognizable by  the  peculiarity  of  their  external  configuration.  Their 
palpi,  the  representatives  of  the  maxillary  palpi  of  insects,  are 
enormously  large,  resembling  in  their  shape  and  proportionate 
size  the  claws  of  a  lobster,  while  the  hinder  part  of  their  body, 
corresponding  with  the  abdomen,  is  much  prolonged,  and  com- 
posed of  numerous  joints,  sometimes  ending  in  a  sharp  hooked 
point,  which  constitutes  their  sting,  and  gives  emission  to  their 
much-dreaded  venom. 

Scorpions  usually  lurk  under  stones,  in  ruined  buildings  and 
caves,  or  in  other  dark  and  damp  situations,  sometimes  even  in 
the  interior  of  houses.  They  run  quickly,  brandishing  their  tails 
over  their  backs,  and  with  this  they  kill  beetles,  locusts,  and  other 
insects,  which  they  catch  by  means  of  their  formidable  pincers. 
The  female  scorpion  produces  her  young  at  different  intervals  : 


140 


ARACHNIDANS. 


she  carries  them  on  her  back  during  the  first  few  days  of  their 
existence,  and  carefully  watches  over  their  safety  for  upwards  of 
a  month,  when  they  become  able  to  provide  for  their  own  sub- 
sistence. 

The  third  division  of  the  Arachnidans  comprehends  the  well- 
known  race  of  Spiders,  equally  remarkable  for  their  voracity  and 
their  cunning.  They  are  distinguished  by  having  their  abdomen 
short  and  globular,  and  by  its  being  furnished  near  its  posterior 
termination  with  a  wonderful  apparatus,  by  means  of  which  these 
animals  manufacture  silken  filaments  applicable  to  a  great  variety 
of  purposes  and  especially  employed  in  constructing  what  is 
usually  named  the  spider's  web. 


FIG.  146. — NERVOUS  SYSTEM  OF  SPIDER. 


FIG.  147. — FANG  OF  SPIDER. 


Spiders  are  the  implacable  foes  of  insects,  \vith  which  they 
wage  cruel  and  unremitting  warfare.  That  the  destroyer  should 
be  more  powerful  than  its  victim  is  essential  to  its  position  ;  that 
it  should  excel  its  prey  in  sagacity,  is  likewise  necessary  to  its 
existence ;  and  by  following  out  the  same  principle  which  has 
been  already  insisted  on  concerning  the  inseparable  connection 
which  exists  between  the  perfection  of  an  animal  and  the  cen- 
tralization of  its  nervous  system,  we  find  in  the  class  before  us  an 
additional  confirmation  of  this  law.  The  whole  series  of  ganglia 
become  here  aggregated  together,  forming,  as  it  were,  one  great 
central  brain,  from  whence  nerves  radiate  to  all  parts  of  the 
body  (Fig.  146). 

The  mouth  of  the  spider  is  a  tremendous  piece  of  machinery. 
The  mandibles  (Fig.  147)  are  each  terminated  by  a  moveable  fang, 
which  ends  in  a  sharp  point,  and  is  perforated  near  its  extremity 
by  a  minute  orifice,  from  which,  when  the  spider  bites,  a  venomous 
fluid  of  great  potency  is  instilled  into  the  wound  inflicted.  Such, 
indeed,  is  the  malignity  of  this  poisonous  secretion,  that  its  effects 
in  destroying  the  life  of  a  wounded  insect  are  almost  instantaneous, 


SPIDERS. 


141 


and  in  the  case  of  some  large  species,  even  small  birds  fall  victims 
to  its  virulence. 

One  peculiar  characteristic  of  spiders,  as  we  have  already  stated, 
is  the  possession  of  a  spinning  apparatus,  whereby  the  threads 
composing  their  web  are  manufactured.  The  apparatus  employed 
for  this  purpose  is  situated  upon  the  hinder  part  of  the  abdomen, 
and  consists  externally  of  four  spinnarcts,  represented  in  the 
accompanying  figure. 


FIG.  149. — SPINNING  APPARATUS  OF  THE 
SPIDER  (greatly  magnified). 


FIG.  148. — GARDEN  SPIDER. 


Each  spinnaret  when  highly  magnified  is  found  to  be  perforated 
at  its  extremity  by  innumerable  orifices  of  exceeding  minuteness, 
through  which  the  filaments  are  drawn.  The  fluid  silk,  which 
constitutes  the  material  whereof  the  thread  is  composed,  is  secreted 
by  a  set  of  glands,  situated  in  the  interior  of  the  body.  Unlike 
the  single  thread  of  a  caterpillar,  the  thread  of  the  spider,  delicate 
as  it  is,  is  known  to  be  composed  of  hundreds  of  filaments,  some- 
times woven  together  by  zigzag  lines,  and  thus  exhibiting  a  struc- 
ture of  exquisite  and  most  elaborate  composition. 

Various   are  the  purposes   to  which  the  different   species   of 


142  ARACHNIDANS. 


spiders  convert  the  delicate  threads  thus  produced.  Some  con- 
struct silken  tubes  or  cells  in  which  to  conceal  themselves,  and 
from  this  retreat  they  issue  to  hunt  for  prey  in  the  vicinity  of 
their  abode.  Others  throw  their  filaments  about  at  random,  ap- 
parently to  entangle  passing  insects.  Many  make  nets  composed 
of  regular  meshes,  and  spread  them  in  favourable  situations  to 
entrap  their  victims  ;  while  some  species,  enveloping  their  eggs 
in  bags  of  curious  construction,  carry  them  about  attached  to 
their  bodies,  and  defend  them  with  the  utmost  courage  and  per- 
tinacity. Even  in  water  these  webs  are  turned  to  many  singular 
uses ;  and  ropes,  nets,  and  even  diving-bells  are  at  the  disposal 
of  aquatic  species  furnished  with  this  extraordinary  spinning 
machinery. 

Spiders  are  divided  into  the  following  families,  each  of  which 
will  require  our  notice  : 

The  Mouse  Spiders  (My gale}*  In  these  the  eyes  are  always  placed  at 
the  anterior  margin  of  the  cephalo-thorax,  and  generally  close  together.  Their 
palpi  and  their  feet  are  very  robust.  They  are  generally  furnished  with  four 
spinnarets,  with  which  they  fabricate  silken  tubes,  that  serve  for  their  habita- 
tions ;  they  are  sometimes  found  under  stones  or  under  the  bark  of  trees,  or 
hidden  between  leaves  tied  together. 

To  this  group  belongs  the  celebrated  Bird.  Spider  (My gale  avicularia),  the  body 
of  which  is  upwards  of  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length.  It  manufactures  its  tube  of  a 
tissue  so  strong  and  dense,  that  it  resembles  white  muslin,  and  carries  its  eggs  in  a 
cocoon  of  the  same  material  as  large  as  a  walnut.  That  these  formidable  creatures  are 
able  to  kill  and  live  upon  birds,  as  their  name  indicates,  has  been  disputed.  The  ques- 
tion has  now,  however,  been  set  at  rest. 

Mr.  H.  W.  Bates,  who  for  many  years  had  an  opportunity  of  observing  their  habits 
on  the  Amazon,  writes  as  follows  :  "In  the  month  of  June,  1849,  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Cameta,  I  was  attracted  by  a  curious  movement  of  the  large  grey-brown  Mygale  on 
the  trunk  of  a  large  tree.  It  was  close  beneath  a  crevice  or  deep  chunk  in  the  tree, 
across  which  this  species  weave  a  dense  web.  In  the  present  instance,  the  lower  part 
of  the  web  was  broken,  and  two  pretty  little  finches  were  entangled  in  its  folds  :  one 
of  them  was  quite  dead,  but  secured  in  the  broken  web  ;  the  other  was  under  the  body 
of  the  spider,  not  quite  dead,  and  was  covered  in  part  with  the  filthy  saliva  of  the 
monster.  As  I  was  returning  from  a  day's  excursion  at  the  time,  with  my  boxes  full 
of  valuable  and  delicate  insects,  and  six  miles  from  my  house,  1  could  not  have  brought 
the  specimens  home  even  if  I  had  wished,  which  I  did  not,  as  the  species  was  very 
common  and  easily  procured.  On  the  extensive  plains  of  Santarem  there  are  hundreds 
of  their  broad  slanting  burrows.  These  localities  are  almost  destitute  of  insects,  but 
they  swarm  with  small  lizards  and  birds,  upon  which  the  Mygale  seems  to  feed." 

The  Mason  Spiders  (Mygale  cementarid]  excavate  for  themselves  subterranean 
caverns  wherein  these  marauders  lurk,  secure  from  detection  even  by  the  most  watch- 
ful foe ;  nor  could  any  robber's  den  that  ever  existed  in  the  wild  regions  of  romance 
boast  more  sure  concealment  from  pursuit  or  immunity  from  observation.  The  con- 
struction of  these  singular  caverns  has  long  excited  the  admiration  of  the  naturalist.  A 
deep  pit  is  first  dug  by  the  spicier,  often  to  the  depth  of  one  or  two  feet,  which,  being 
carefully  lined  throughout  with  silken  tapestry,  affords  a  warm  and  ample  lodging.  The 

*  fj.vyaX-'ij,  mygale,  a  field- mouse.. 


SPIJDE&S. 


entrance  to  this  excavation  is  carefully  guarded  by  a  lid  or  door,  that  moves  upon  a 
hinge,  and  accurately  closes  the  mouth  of  the  pit.  In  order  to  form  the  door  in  ques- 
tion, the  Mygale  first  spins  a  web,  exa  .tiy  covering  the  mouth  of  the  hole,  but  attached 


FIG.  150.- TRAP-DOOR  SPIDER. 

to  the  margin  by  one  point  only  of  its  circumference.  This  point,  of  course,  forms  the 
hinge.  The  spider  then  proceeds  to  spread  upon  the  web  a  thin  layer  of  the  soil 
collected  in  the  neighbourhood  of  her  dwelling,  and  covers  it  with  another  stratum 
of  silk  ;  layer  after  layer  is  thus  disposed,  until  at  length  the  door  -acquires  sufficient 


FIG.  151  — NEST  OF 
TKAP-DOOR  SPIDER. 


Fi~.  152. —TRAP-DOOR  OPENING 
BY  A  LEVER. 


FIG.  153.— SECTION  OF  NEST. 


strength  and  thickness.  When  perfected,  the  concealment  afforded  is  complete,  for  as 
the  outer  layer  of  the  lid  is  formed  of  earth  precisely  similar  to  that  which  surrounds 
the  hole,  the  strictest  search  will  scarcely  reveal  to  the  most  practised  eye  the  retreat 
so  singularly  defended. 

As  might  be  expected,  there  are  varieties  in  the  shape  and  size  of  these  nests.  Some 
specimens,  obtained  in  the  island  of  Zante,  have  the  silken  layers  of  the  lid  extended 
into  a  sort  of  handle  or  lever  just  above  the  hinge,  on  pressing  which  the  trap-door 
opens. 


i44  ARACHNIDANS. 


The  spiders  possessing  but  one  pair  of  respiratory  sacculi  con- 
stitute the  genus  of  Spinning  Spiders  (Aranea),  so  called  on 
account  of  the  perfection  of  their  webs — the  first  named  of  the 
race,  of  course,  being  Miss  Arachne,  who  was  turned  into  a  spider 
for  having  challenged  Minerva  to  a  spinning-match.  These  are 
divided,  according  to  their  habits,  into 

The  Sedentary  Arachnidans,  distinguished  by  weaving  webs, 
or,  at  least,  casting  out  threads  in  order  to  entrap  their  prey,  whilst 
they  remain  concealed  in  the  vicinity  of  their  snares.  These  have 
eight  eyes — two  or  four  of  which  are  placed  in  the  middle  of  the 
forehead,  and  the  rest  on  each  side.  Some  species,  which  always 
walk  straightforward,  are  called 

Rectigrades  (Rcctigrada).  They  weave  webs  of  different  kinds, 
and  hence  have  been  divided  into  several  families. 


FIG.  154. — THE  EYES  OF  SPIDER. 

The  Tube-weavers  ( Tubitdes\  or  Tapestry  Spiders,  are  celebrated  for  their 
ingenuity.  The  geometric  web  of  the  common  Garden  Spider  (Epeira  diadema) 
has  been  admired  in  all  ages  as  a  wonderful  production,  elaborate  in  its  con- 
struction and  most  effective  for  its  purpose.  These  nets  are  composed  of  two 
sorts  of  threads.  The  framework,  which  is  first  formed,  consists  of  straight 
rays  diverging  from  a  centre  ;  these  are  not  adhesive,  but  over  these  the  spider 
then  travels,  weaving  a  spiral  thread  round  and  round,  which  is  the  true  net ; 
for  this  thread,  which  is  more  elastic  than  the  other,  is  studded  all  over  with 
minute  globules  of  a  gummy  substance,  by  which  it  is  rendered  tenacious. 

In  Rio  de  Janeiro  the  family  Epeira  is  characterized  by  many  singular  forms. 
Every  path  in  the  forest  is  barricaded  with  the  strong  yellow  web  of  a  species 
said  to  make  nets  so  strong  as  to  catch  birds.  A  small  but  pretty  kind  of 
spider  lives  as  a  parasite  upon  every  one  of  these  webs  ;  possibly  it  is  too  in- 
significant to  be  noticed  by  the  great  Epeira,  and  is,  therefore,  allowed  to  prey 
on  the  minute  insects  which,  adhering  to  the  lines,  would  otherwise  be  wasted. 


SPIDERS.  145 


When  frightened,  the  little  spider  either  feigns  death  or  suddenly  drops  to  the 
ground.  The  web  of  another  species  of  Epeira,  which  is  generally  placed 
among  the  great  leaves  of  the  Agave,  is  sometimes  strengthened  near  the 
centre  by  two  or  even  four  zigzag  ribands,  which  connect  two  adjoining  rays. 
When  any  large  insect,  as  a  grasshopper  or  wasp,  is  caught,  the  spider,  by 
quickly  giving  it  a  revolving  movement,  and  at  the  same  time  emitting  a  band 
of  threads  from  its  spinners,  soon  envelopes  its  prey  in  a  case  resembling  the 
cocoon  of  a  silkworm.  The  spider  now  examines  its  powerless  victim,  and 
gives  the  fatal  bite  on  the  hind  part  of  its  thorax,  then  retreating,  waits  till  the 
poison  has  taken  effect.  The  virulence  of  this  poison  is  such,  that  in  half  a 
minute  after  being  bitten  a  large  wasp  is  quite  lifeless. 

The  webs  of  another  species,  common  in  South  America,  are  placed  verti- 
cally, and  separated  from  each  other  by  a  space  of  about  two  feet,  but  are  all 
attached  to  certain  common  lines,  which  are  of  great  length  and  extended  to 
all  parts  of  the  neighbourhood ;  so  that  in  this  manner  the  tops  of  large  bushes 
are  covered  by  the  united  nets.  These  gregarious  habits,  in  creatures  so  blood- 
thirsty and  solitary  as  the  spiders,  are  not  a  little  curious. 

Another  American  spider  builds  a  web  of  very  singular  construction.  Strong 
lines  radiate  from  a  common  centre,  where  the  creature  is  stationed,  but  only 
two  of  the  rays  are  connected  by  meshwork,  so  that  the  net,  instead  of  being 
circular,  consists  of  a  single  wedge-shaped  segment. — DARWIX. 

The  Clotho  Durandii  constructs  a  kind  of  tent,  wherein  it  lives  and  rears  its 
young.  This  tent  is  formed  by  several  superimposed  sheets  of  a  material  re- 
sembling the  finest  taffeta,  and  its  margin  presents  seven  or  eight  prominent 
angles,  which  are  fixed  to  the  surface  of  the  ground  by  silken  cords.  The 
exterior  sheet  of  the  tent  is  purposely  dirtied,  for  the  sake  of  concealment,  but 
all  within  is  beautifully  clean  and  white.  The  most  admirable  part  of  the 
contrivance,  however,  is  the  perfect  safety  afforded  to  the  young  when  the 
parent  leaves  her  nest  in  search  of  food.  Some  of  the  superimposed  sheets 
are  fastened  together  at  their  edges  ;  others  are  simply  laid  upon  each  other; 
and  as  the  spider  herself  only  possesses  the  secret  enabling  her  to  raise  those 
layers  by  which  entrance  is  to  be  obtained,  no  other  animal  can  find  its  way 
into  her  impenetrable  abode. 

Another  species  is  mentioned  by  Dr.  Johnston,  whose  habits  are  still  more 
singular.  This  spider  lives  habitually  in  and  under  water,  but  having  no 
fellowship  with  that  element,  in  which,  of  course,  it  cannot  breathe  like  aquatic 
animals,  in  order  that  it  may  pass  its  life  there  in  a  dry  and  comfortable 
manner,  appropriates  to  its  use  the  old  shells  of  water-snails  (Limnceus  stag- 
nalis).  Entering  the  shell,  the  spider  closes  the  aperture  with  a  web  or  curtain 
of  varnished  silk,  which  re"pels  the  water  and  hinders  its  admission  ;  she  then 
fills  her  abode  with  atmospheric  air.  The  shell  is  sometimes  found  lying  at 
the  bottom  of  the  pond,  but,  rendered  buoyant  by  the  air  within  it,  often  rises 
and  floats  on  the  surface,  and  the  wily  spicier  is,  in  this  manner,  carried  within 
reach  of  her  prey,  who  feel  no  alarm  at  the  approach  of  what  seems  to  be  a 
snail. 

The  Spiders  (properly  so  called)  (Araned)  belong  to  this  group.  They 
build  their  webs  in  the  interior  of  houses,  in  the  angles  of  walls,  or  on  plants 
and  hedges ;  sometimes  under  stones.  Their  web  is  very  large,  nearly  hori- 
zontal, and  in  the  upper  part  there  is  always  a  tube,  in  which  the  old  spider 
sits  concealed  waiting  with  immoveable  patience  until  some  heedless  victim 
falls  into  her  toils. 

10 


146 


ARACHNIDANS. 


The  Water-Spider  (Argyroneta}*  is  another  member  of  the  same  extensive 
family,  the  history  of  which  must  by  no  means  be  passed  over.  This  remarkable  spider 
lives  in  stagnant  waters,  where  it  swims  about  with  perfect  ease,  keeping  its  abdomen 
enclosed  in  a  bubble  of  air,  which  shines  like  a  little  globe  of  silver.  The  female  con- 
structs for  herself  a  nest,  a  kind  of  diving-bell,  in  the  shape  of  an  oval  cocoon,  which 
is  lined  with  silk,  and  anchored  to  the  surrounding  plants  by  cables  spread  in  all  direc- 
tions :  in  this  retreat  she  lies  in  wait  for  prey,  and  places  her  cocoon  of  eggs,  which 
she  jealously  guards  ;  and  here,  also,  she  shuts  herself  up  to  pass  the  winter. 


FIG.  155. — NEST  OF  HOUSE-SPIDER. 

The  Inequiteles,  f  or  Thread-spinners,  constitute  a  second 
division,  known  by  their  webs,  constructed  of  very  irregular 
meshes,  which  cross  each  other  in  all  directions.  These  spiders 
garotte  their  prey ;  they  carefully  watch  their  eggs,  and  never 
abandon  them  till  they  are  hatched.  Some  of  them  (Pholcus 
phalangistd)  are  common  in  our  houses,  where  they  construct  a 
loose  web  in  the  angles  of  walls :  the  female  glues  her  eggs  to- 
gether in  a  loose  packet,  without  any  covering,  and  carries  them 
about  in  her  jaws. 

Upon  one  occasion  Bonnet  saw  a  spider  of  this  description 
tumble  into  the  pitfall  of  an  ant-lion,  which  immediately  seized 
upon  her  bag  of  eggs,  and  attempted  to  drag  it  into  the  sand. 

*  dpyvpos,  argyros,  silver ;  PTJTOS,  netos,  spun,     f  Inrequalis,  unequal ;  tela,  a  web. 


SPIDERS.  147 


During  the  struggle,  the  silken  cord  whereby  the  cocoon  was 
attached  to  the  spider's  body  broke  ;  immediately  she  seized  it 
with  her  jaws,  and  a  tremendous  struggle  ensued,  during  which 
the  spider,  together  with  her  treasure,  was  buried  beneath  the 
sand,  from  whence,  however,  she  was  extricated ;  but  nothing 
would  induce  or  compel  her  to  quit  the  dangerous  locality  where 
she  had  lost,  apparently,  everything  that  she  held  dear. 

The  Orbiteles,*  or  Net-spreading  Arachnidans,  construct 
their  nets  with  regular  meshes,  concentrically  arranged,  and  sup- 
ported by  straight  cords  that  radiate  from  the  centre,  where  the 
spider  awaits  the  result  of  his  labours,  generally  holding  on  to  the 
web  with  his  head  downwards.  No  sooner  is  an  insect  caught  in 


FIG.  156.— FOOT  OF  SFIUEK. 

the  toils,  than  the  spider,  sometimes  placed  in  the  centre  of  her 
net,  sometimes  ensconced  in  some  special  hiding-place  situated 
in  a  corner  of  the  web,  rushes  upon  her  victim,  and  endeavours  to 
pierce  it  with  her  murderous  fangs,  and  thus  instil  into  its  body  a 
drop  of  the  subtle  venom  with  which  they  are  armed.  Should 
the  imprisoned  fly  offer  anything  like  a  vigorous  resistance,  or 
should  its  strength  appear  formidable,  she  retires  for  a  short  time, 
till  it  is  either  exhausted  by  its  struggles  or  becomes  helplessly 
involved  in  the  meshes  of  the  net ;  as  soon,  however,  as  she  per- 
ceives there  is  nothing  to  fear,  she  at  once  envelopes  her  prey  with 
coils  of  silk,  so  as  entirely  to  conceal  it  from  view.  The  eggs  of 
these  spiders  are  very  numerous,  agglutinated  into  a  mass,  and 
enclosed  in  a  voluminous  cocoon.  The  radiating  lines  of  these 
webs  are  used  by  opticians  in  the  construction  of  micrometers : 
they  are  so  elastic  that  they  may  be  stretched  one-fifth  of  their 
length. 

The  next  group  of  Sedentary  Arachnidans,  instead  of  always 
walking  forwards  like  the  preceding,  can  walk  sideways  or  back- 
wards equally  well ;  they  are,  therefore,  called 

*  Orbis,  an  orb  or  disk  ;  tela,  a  web. 

1C — 2 


i4S  ARACHNIDANS. 


Laterigrades.  These  spiders  are  generally  found  quite 
motionless  upon  vegetables,  where  they  remain  with  their  legs 
stretched  out  ready  for  action.  They  construct  no  web,  but 
simply  scatter  about  a  few  solitary  threads  to  arrest  their  prey. 
Their  cocoon  is  round  and  flat ;  they  conceal  it  between  leaves, 
the  edges  off  which  they  fasten  together,  and  carefully  watch  it 
until  the  eggs  are  hatched. 

The  second  division  of  the  race  of  spiders  comprehends 

The  Vagabond  Arachnidans,  as  they  are  called,  in  contradis- 
tinction to  the  preceding,  which  are  all  sedentary.  These  spiders 
make  no  web,  but  lie  in  wait  for  their  prey,  which  they  overtake 
by  running,  or  by  leaping  upon  it  suddenly.  They  are  divided 
into  two  sections — 

The  Citigrades,  or  Runners,  and  the  Saltigrades,  or  Lcapers. 

The  Citigrades,t  called  also  Wolf  Spiders,  are  to  be  found  on  the  tops 
of  trees  or  bushes,  where  they  build  a  bell-shaped  nest,  in  which  the  females 
lay  their  eggs:  this  nest,  or  cocoon,  they  always  carry  with  them  when  they 
go  to  hunt,  generally  attaching  it  to  their  breast.  Some  of  them  are  frequently 
seen  by  the  margins  of  ponds ;  sometimes,  indeed,  they  run  upon  the  surface 
of  the  water  with  surprising  swiftness,  and  they  may  be  often  seen  to  leap  upon 
flies  and  other  insects  that  approach  them  too  closely.  One  species — 

The  Tarantula  (Lycosa  Tarentitla],  so  called  from  the  city  of  Tarentum,  in  Italy, 
where  it  is  common,  has  obtained  great  celebrity.  It  is  there  commonly  believed  that 
its  bite  is  very  serious,  being  sometimes  fatal,  or  if  not,  that  it  occasions  a  peculiar 
malady  called  "Tarentism,"  only  to  be  cured  by  music  and  dancing.  Enlightened 
and  judicious  persons  are  of  opinion,  however,  that  it  is  the  effect  of  imagination  that 
requires  thus  to  be  combated,  rather  than  the  venom  of  the  Tarentula. 

The  Saltigrade,  %  or  Leaping  Spiders,  may  frequently  be  seen  upon 
walls,  or  in  other  situations  exposed  to  the  sun.  They  walk,  as  it  were,  by 
fits  and  starts,  and  after  taking  a  few  steps,  stop  suddenly,  and  rear  themselves 
on  their  fore-legs.  Should  they  see  a  fly  or  gnat,  they  approach  it  cautiously, 
until  they  get  so  near  that  they  can  clear  the  distance  at  a  single  leap,  and  then 
spring  like  tigers  on  their  prey.  They  will  occasionally  make  these  leaps  even 
from  the  side  of  a  perpendicular  wall,  for  being  always  attached  by  a  silken 
thread,  they  easily  scramble  up  again.  Many  of  them  build  their  nests  under 
stones  or  between  the  leaves  of  trees.  Their  nests  are  of  an  oval  form,  and 
open  at  both  ends  :  in  these  they  repose,  change  their  skin,  or  take  shelter 
from  the  weather  ;  but  if  alarmed,  they  immediately  rush  out,  and  scamper 
off  with  precipitation.  9 

Some  spiders  possess  the  remarkable  faculty  of  shooting  out  threads  in 
diverging  lines  into  the  air,  which,  being  lighter  than  the  atmosphere,  form  a 
sort  of  balloon,  on  which  the  little  aeronaut  mounts  above  this  lower  world, 
and  rides  at  will  among  the  clouds. 

Mr.  Blackwall  supposes  that  the  spider  is  enabled  to  do  this  by  the  action 
of  the  wind,  which  carries  the  thread  out  as  it  is  spun,  and  that  many  being 

*  Latus,  lateris,  the  side ;  gradior,  I  walk.  f  Cito,  quickly  ;  gradior,  I  walk. 

J  Saltus,  a  leap;  gradior,  I  walk. 


CRUSTACEANS. 


entangled  together,  are  carried  into  the  air  by  the  upward  current  causecl  by 
the  rarefaction  of  the  stratum  near  the  heated  ground,  during  the  middle  of 
the  day  ;  and  that  at  night,  the  earth  being  cooled,  the  air  descends,  bringing 
with  it  the  accumulated  webs,  which,  lying  thick  upon  the  herbage,  are  called 
"gossamer." 

Mr.  Darwin's  observations  relative 'to  these  gossamer  spiders  are  very  in- 
teresting. His  ship  was  sixty  miles  from  land,  in  the  direction  of  a  steady 
though  light  breeze,  and  vast  numbers  of  small  spiders  covered  the  rigging 
with  their  webs. 

"  The  little  spider,  when  first  coming  in  contact  with  the  rigging,  was  always 
seated  on  a  single  thread.  The  little  aeronaut,  as  soon  as  it  arrived  on  board, 
was  very  active,  sometimes  letting  itself  fall  and  then  reascending  the  same 
thread,  sometimes  employing  itself  in  making  a  small  and  very  irregular  mesh 
in  the  corners  between  the  ropes.  While  watching  some  that  were  suspended 
by  a  single  thread,  the  slightest  breath  of  air  bore  them  out  of  sight.  I  re- 
peatedly observed  the  same  kind  of  small  spider,  either  when  placed  or  having 
crawled  on  some  little  eminence,  elevate  its  abdomen,  send  forth  a  thread,  and 
then  sail  away  in  a  lateral  course,  with  a  rapidity  which  was  quite  unaccount- 
able. I  thought  that  I  could  perceive  that  the  spider,  before  performing  the 
above  preparatory  steps,  connected  its  legs  together  with  most  delicate  threads." 

M.  Virey  has  recorded  some  very  curious  observations  t?  Bulletin  des 
Sciences  Nat.,"  torn.  xix.  p.  130),  which  seem  to  prove  that  small  spiders  in 
an  atmosphere  perfectly  tranquil,  and  without  the  aid  of  any  web,  have  the 
power  of  darting  through  the  air ;  and  believes  that,  by  means  of  a  rapid 
vibration  of  their  feet,  they  walk  the  air. 

"  After  reading  M.  Virey's  account,"  says  Mr.  Darwin,  "  it  appears  to  me  far 
from  improbable  that,  in  the  case  above  recorded,  the  little  aeronaut  actually 
did,  as  was  suspected,  unite  its  feet  together  with  some  fine  lines,  thus  forming 
iirtificiai  wings.  I  regret  that  I  did  not  determine  this  point  with  accuracy, 
for  it  would  be  a  curious  fact  that  a  spider  should  thus  be  able  to  take  flight 
by  the  aid  of  temporary  wings." — "  Voyage  of  the  Beagle? 


CHAPTER    XIII. 

FIFTH  CLASS  OF  ARTICULATED  ANIMALS. 
CRUSTACEANS. 

THE  Insects  and  Arachnidans  described  in  the  preceding 
chapters  are  air-breathing  animals  :  even  in  such  species  as 
inhabit  fresh  water,  respiration  is  strictly  aerial.  No  insects  or 
spiders  could  live  in  the  sea  ;  and,  consequently,  the  waters  of  the 
ocean  would  be  utterly  untenanted  by  corresponding  forms  of 
life,  had  not  a  class  of  beings  belonging  to  the  articulated  division 
of  the  animal  world  been  so  constructed  as  to  be  capable  of  re- 


150  CRUSTACEANS. 

spiring  through  a  watery  medium,  and  thus  adapted  to  a  residence 
in  the  recesses  of  the  deep.  Many  species,  it  is  true,  are  met  with 
abundantly  in  the  fresh  waters  around  us ;  but  these  form  rather 
exceptions  to  the  general  rule,  and  we  may  fairly  regard  the 
Crustaceans  as  marine  representatives  of  the  insects  and  spiders, 
with  which  they  form  a  parallel  series.  These  animals  are  divided 
into  segments,  typically  twenty-one  in  number,  of  which  seven 
belong  to  the  head,  seven  to  the  thorax,  and  seven  to  the  abdo- 
men. The  segments,  however,  are  generally  consolidated  or  sol- 
dered together  in  various  degrees,  so  that  in  the  great  majority 
of  cases  only  a  few  of  these  divisions  are  obvious.  Thus,  in  the 
lobster,  the  whole  head  and  thorax  are  united  into  one  great 
shield,  on  the  under  side  of  which,  however,  the  divisions  can  be 
traced  ;  in  the  crab  the  consolidation  of  these  parts  is  still  further 
conspicuous,  and  the  segments  of  the  abdomen  are  small,  and 
folded  up  beneath  the  enormous  thorax  ;  while  in  the  remarkable 
king-crab  or  "horse-foot"  of  warm  climates  (Limulus),  the  divi- 
sions of  the  abdomen  are  lost,  the  body  being  covered  by  two 
large  shields,  terminating  in  a  long,  sharp  spine.  The  higher  forms 
of  Crustaceans  breathe  by  means  of  gills,  and  when  these  organs 
are  'wanting,  the  integument  of  certain  parts  of  the  body,  gene- 
rally of  the  limbs,  takes  their  place.  In  the  crabs,  lobsters,  and 
shrimps,  respiration  is  effected  by  a  number  of  brancJdce  attached 
to  the  bases  of  the  locomotive  limbs.  The  structure  of  these  gills 
is  very  curious  :  they  consist  of  a  central  stem,  to  which  are 
attached  numerous  appendages,  disposed  like  the  bristles  of  a 
brush,  or  else  piled  on  each  other  like  the  leaves  of  a  book,  thus 
presenting  in  the  aggregate  a  very  extensive  surface  for  exposure 
to  the  surrounding  element.  These  organs  are  enclosed  in  two 
large  chambers  situated  on  the  sides  of  the  thorax,  into  which 
the  water  is  freely  admitted  by  a  wide  aperture  situated  between 
the  bases  of  the  legs  and  the  margin  of  the  shell,  and  expelled 
through  another  orifice  placed  at  the  side  of  the  mouth.  In 
order  to  insure  the  renewal  of  the  respired  water,  a  valve  of 
beautiful  construction  is  placed  in  the  vicinity  of  the  latter  open- 
ing, and  attached  to  the  root  of  the  second  pair  of  foot-jaws.  The 
construction  of  this  valve  is  precisely  that  of  the  Archimedean 
screw,  or  of  the  propelling  laminae  of  a  screw  steamer,  so  that  by 
its  every  movement  it  drives  a  powerful  current  through  the  open- 
ing in  which  it  is  situated.  In  other  Crustaceans,  such  as  the 
mantis  crabs,  the  gills  have  the  form  of  bunches  of  feathers,  and 
instead  of  being  enclosed  within  the  thorax,  float  freely  from  the 


CRUSTACEANS.  15  r 


false  feet  situated  beneath  the  tail.  In  many  of  the  lower  forms, 
the  breathing  organs  consist  of  little  bladders  fixed  to  the  bases 
of  the  legs,  while  in  others,  the  limbs  themselves  are  so  thin  and 
delicate  that  they  seem  to  afford  a  sufficient  respiratory  surface. 

There  are, however,  some  families  of  Crustaceans  which  live  upon 
dry  land,  and  thus  respire  the  atmospheric  air,  and  these  would 
seem  to  form  an  exception  to  what  has  been  said  relative  to  the 
difference  of  structure  in  the  respiratory  apparatus  of  aquatic  and 
terrestrial  animals,  for  instead  of  being  furnished  with  tracheae, 
like  the  insects,  they  breathe  air  by  means  of  gills:  these,  however, 
are  always  disposed  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  kept  in  the  moist 
state  required  for  the  exercise  of  their  function.  In  these  terres- 
trial species,  therefore,  which  breathe  by  means  of  wet  gills,  there 
exists  at  the  bottom  of  the  respiratory  cavity  a  sort  of  trough, 
which  serves  as  a  reservoir  for  water  sufficient  to  keep  their 
branchiae  moist,  or  else  the  respiratory  cavity  is  lined  with  a  spongy 
membrane,  which  seems  to  answer  the  same  purpose.  Others, 
again,  as  the  wood-lice  (Oniscus),  breathe  a  damp  atmosphere,  by 
means  of  foliaceous  appendages  situated  under  the  abdomen. 

The  Crustaceans  are  all  oviparous.  The  female,  after  having 
laid  her  eggs,  generally  carries  them  about  attached  to  the  under 
part  of  her  body,  or  sometimes  enclosed  in  a  sort  of  pouch  formed 
of  appendages  variously  modified.  Sometimes  the  young  under- 
go a  very  remarkable  metamorphosis,  and  not  only  completely 
change  their  form  during  the  earlier  periods  of  their  existence, 
but  in  the  progress  of  thejr  growth  acquire  additional  limbs. 

All  the  senses  of  the  higher  animals  are  possessed  by  the 
Crustacea  in  considerable  perfection.  The  organs  of  vision  are 
present  in  all  at  some  period  of  their  existence,  and  in  the  majority 
of  species  are  of  a  very  complex  structure.  We  find  in  some  both 
simple  and  compound  eyes,  similar  in  principle  to  those  of  insects  : 
both  of  these  forms  occur  in  the  king-crab  (LiiJiuhis),  and  there 
are  eyes  of  an  intermediate  character,  such  as  that  of  the  water- 
flea  (Dap/aria),  where  several  clustered  lenses  and  eye-cells  are 
covered  by  a  single  smooth  and  transparent  cornea.  But  in  the 
higher  forms  of  Crustacea,  the  true  compound  or  faceted  eye  only 
is  met  with.  The  facets  are  not  always  six-sided,  as  in  insects, 
but  are  sometimes  square,  as  in  the  cray-fish  (Astacus  fluviatilis). 
Sometimes  the  eyes  are  immoveable  ;  but  in  many  species  they 
are  placed  at  the  end  of  jointed  footstalks,  of  various  lengths, 
capable  of  being  pointed  in  different  directions  ;  and  we  often 
find,  in  connection  with  these  stalked  eyes,  a  furrow,  in  which 


1 52  CRUSTACEANS. 


they  can  be  laid  flat,  and  thus  protected  from  injury.  The  organ 
of  hearing  is  a  cavity  closed  by  a  delicate  membrane,  situated  at 
the  base  of  the  second  pair  of  antennae  in  the  lobster  and  similar 
forms.  In  the  crabs  this  is  replaced  by  a  small,  moveable,  shelly 
disk,  pierced  with  a  hole,  over  which  an  elastic  membrane  is 
stretched.  A  cavity  filled  with  fluid  in  each  case  conveys  the 
vibrations  of  sound  to  the  proper  nerves. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  higher  Crustaceans  are 
guided  to  their  food  by  a  sense  analogous  to  that  of  smell ;  but 
where  its  seat  is  placed,  zoologists  have  not  determined  :  the 
probability  is,  that  it  may  be  connected  with  the  first  pair  of 
antennae.  Similar  observations  may  be  applied  to  the  percep- 
tions of  taste :  the  sense  doubtless  exists,  and  its  organ  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  delicate  membrane  that  lines  the  mouth  and  the 
throat.  It  is  commonly  considered  that  the  sensations  of  touch 
can  be  but  very  feebly,  if  at  all,  conveyed  through  the  hard  cal- 
careous crust  with  which  these  animals  are  clothed,  and  that  this 
sense  can  hardly  exist,  except  in  those  parts  which  remain  soft 
and  undefended  by  the  crust.  But  we  have  seen  a  swimming  crab 
(Matutd)  hold  its  prey  in  one  claw,  while  with  the  other  it  picked 
off  morsel  by  morsel  of  the  flesh,  and  conveyed  it  to  its  mouth 
in  a  manner  which  sufficiently  evidenced  the  sensation  of  touch 
in  these  organs ;  and  we  have  watched  a  beautiful  West  Indian 
crab  (Goniopsis  ruricold)  feeding  itself  in  the  same  manner,  pick- 
ing up,  now  with  one  claw,  now  with  another,  minute  atoms  of  food 
from  the  surface  of  the  mud  over  which  .it  marched,  with  a  rapidity 
and  a  precision  which  seemed  to  indicate  that  a  very  delicate 
sense  of  touch  resided  in  those  shelly  claws. — MR.  GOSSE. 

The  periodical  casting  of  the  shell,  or  moulting,  is  a  very  re- 
markable feature  in  the  economy  of  these  creatures.  Frequently 
during  their  lives  their  hard  and  shelly  covering  is  cast  off  in 
one  unbroken  piece,  so  as  to  present  an  exact  counterpart  of  the 
perfect  animal.  Every  part  of  the  integument  is  thus  renewed : 
nothing  is  wanting  in  the  cast-off  skin — the  antennae,  the  jaws, 
the  eyes,  are  all  there,  every  hair  is  represented  by  the  case  which 
enclosed  it.  Even  the  shelly  plates  from  which  the  muscles 
originate,  the  tendons  by  which  they  are  attached  to  the  shell, 
the  internal  skin  of  the  stomach,  and  the  teeth  which  are  hidden 
there,  are  found  connected  with  the  rejected  shell ! 

The  pressure  of  the  old  shell  being  removed,  the  animal  sud- 
denly increases  in  bulk,  the  new  skin,  as  yet  soft  and  flexible, 
allowing  at  first  of  great  expansion ;  but  it  rapidly  hardens,  a 


CRUSTACEANS.  153 

stock  of  shelly  matter  having  been  for  some  time  accumulating 
in  its  stomach,  in  the  form  of  two  hard  balls,  commonly  called 
crafts-eyes.  This  substance  is  supposed  to  be  taken  up  and  distri- 
buted to  the  surface,  so  that  when  the  new  crust  has  again  acquired 
consistence,  these  concretions  are  no  longer  found.  The  whole  pro- 
cess occupies  from  one  to  three  days.  The  supposition  that  the 
moulting  in  these  aifimals  takes  place  every  year  must  probably 
be  restricted  to  the  period  of  their  growth,  beyond  which  the 
change  of  shell  would  seem  to  be  unnecessary.  A  specimen  of 
the  common  crab  has  been  taken,  the  shell  of  which  was  covered 


. 

FIG.  157.— CRAB  COVERED  WITH  OYSTERS. 

with  oysters  of  six  years'  growth,  besides  Actinice  and  other  para- 
sites. The  crab  was  full  grown  and  in  perfect  health,  and  it  is 
clear  that  it  could  not  have  cast  its  shell  for  six  years  previously. 

The  external  forms  and  structure  of  the  limbs  of  Crustaceans 
are  infinitely  diversified  ;  but  as  they  are  all  constructed  in  accor- 
dance with  the  same  plan,  we  will  select  the  lobster  for  special 
description,  as  illustrative  of  the  entire  group. 

On  examining  a  lobster  with  a  little  attention,  it  will  be  seen 
that  its  head  is  furnished  with  four  antennae,  a  circumstance 
which  is  distinctive  of  the  class.  Its  eyes  are  compound,  like 
those  of  an  insect,  and  are  supported  upon  a  pair  of  moveable 
pedicles.-  There  are  five  pairs  of  jointed  limbs  placed  on  each 


i54  CRUSTACEANS. 


side  of  the  mouth,  which  are  evidently  adapted  to  assist  in  seiz- 
ing and  conveying  into  the  mouth  the  substances  used  as  food. 

These  singular  organs,  although  entitled  to  "be  considered  as 
jaws,  so  far  as  their  use  would  indicate,  are  no  less  obviously 
merely  modifications  of  jointed  legs  ;  they  are,  therefore,  termed 
"foot-jaws,"  or  "jaw-feet." 


.  158. — COMMON  LOBSTER. 


The  pair  of  legs  that  come  next  are  developed  to  a  size  far 
surpassing  that  of  the  other  limbs,  and  are  endowed  with  pro- 
portionate strength.  Each  of  these  robust  extremities  is  termi- 
nated by  a  pair  of  strong  pincers  (cliche] ;  but  the  two  differ  in 
their  structure,  and  are  appropriated  to  different  uses.  That  of 
one  side  of  the  body  has  the  opposed  edges  of  its  terminal  forceps 
provided  with  large  blunt  tubercles,  white  the  opposite  claw  is 
armed  with  sharp  teeth.  One  claw,  in  fact,  is  used  as  an  anchor,  by 
which  the  lobster  holds  fast  by  some  submarine  fixed  object,  and 
thus  prevents  itself  from  being  tossed  about  in  an  agitated  sea ; 
the  other  is  a  cutting  instrument  for  tearing  and  dividing  prey. 

To  the  chelce  succeed  four  pairs  of  slender  legs,  scarcely  at  all 
serviceable  for  locomotion,  but  the  two  anterior,  being  terminated 
by  feeble  forceps,  arc  auxiliary  instruments  of  prehension. 


CRUSTACEANS.  155 

The  articulated  appendages  situated  beneath  the  tail  are  so 
rudimentary  that  they  are  no  longer  recognizable  as  instruments 
of  progression,  and  it  is  at  once  evident,  when  we  examine  the 
manner  in  which  these  creatures  use  their  tails  in  swimming,  that 
any  large  limbs  in  this  position  would  materially  impede  the 
movements  of  animals  presenting  such  a  construction.  The  false 
feet,  as  these  organs  are  called,  are  merely  available  as  a  means  of 
fixing  the  eggs  which  the  female  lobster  attaches  to  them. 

The  tail  is  the  great  agent  of  locomotion,  and  for  this  purpose 
it  is  terminated  by  a  fin  formed  of  broad  plates,  so  arranged  that, 
while  they  will  close  together  during  the  extension  of  the  tail, 
and  thus  present  the  least  possible  surface  to  the  water,  they  are 
brought  out  to  their  full  expansion  by  its  down-stroke  ;  and  such 
is  the  impulse  thus  given,  that  a  lobster  will  dart  backwards  to  a 
distance  of  twenty  or  thirty  feet  by  one  sweep  of  this  remarkable 
locomotive  instrument. 

The  Crustacea  are  divided  into  several  important  sections,  each 
of  which  will  require  separate  notice. 


TEN-FOOTED  CRUSTACEANS.    ORDER  DECAPODA. 

The  first  great  division  of  this  extensive  class  has  received  the 
name  of  Decapoda*  (ten  legs],  from  the  circumstance  that  their 
locomotive  limbs  are  always  ten  in  number. 

The  Decapods  are  divided  into  three  groups,  known  by  the 
somewhat  unpronounceable  names  of  Macroura,  Brachyura, 
and  Anomoura ;  when  translated  into  English,  however,  these 
formidable-looking  words  simply  mean  Big-tails >  Little-tails,  and 
Queer-tails. 

The  division  Macrouraf  (big-tails,  includes  the  Lobsters, 
Cray-fishes^  Shrimps,  and  Prawns. 

The  Sea  Cray-Fishes  (Palinurus)  have  their  antennas  very  large  and 
studded  with  sharp  spines ;  their  shell  is  likewise  rough,  covered  with  prickles, 
and  armed  in  front  with  strong  spiny  protuberances.  They  seldom  frequent 
any  but  rocky  or  stony  places,  live  there  on  fish  and  divers  marine  animals, 
and  attain,  after  some  years,  to  the  length  of  a  foot,  measured  from  the  head 
to  the  extremity  of  the  tail.  In  some  places,  little  favourable  to  fishing,  these 
Crustaceans,  being  less  exposed  and  more  tranquil,  may  live  a  very  long  time 
and  acquire  a  large  size:  some  have  been  obtained  nearly  three  feet  long. 
They  are  caught  in  wicker  baskets,  baited  with  flesh,  much  in  the  same  way 
as  lobsters. 

*  5fKa,  deca,  ten;  irovs,  Trodos,  pous,  podos,  a  foot. 
f  ,ua/cpos,  macros,  long ;  ovpa,  oura,  a  tail. 


DECAPODS. 


The  Lobsters  (Astacus)  are  distinguished  by  having  their  front  pairs  of 
slender  feet  terminated  by  a  kind  of  forceps  or  two-fingered  hand.  These 
well-known  animals  are  abundant  throughout  the  European  seas,  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  upon  the  eastern  coast  of  North  America. 

The  River  Cray-Fish.  {Aftacus  flmriatllis\  common  throughout  Europe  in  every 
clear  brook,  is  easily  caught  bv  means  of  a  net  attached  to  an  iron  ring,  in  the  middle 
of  which  a  piece  of  meat  is  fixed ;  the  iron  circle  is  attached  to  a  long  stick  by  means 
of  three  strings.  It  is  put  into  the  water  at  dusk,  the  time  at  which  the  Cray-fishes 
quit  their  holes,  and  before  long  they  are  sure  to  find  the  meat,  which  they  rush  at 
with  great  avidity.  The  net  is  then  suddenly  raised,  and  several  are  caught  at  once. 
Sometimes  the  plan  is  modified  by  placing  the  meat  in  the  centre  of  a  faggot  of  thorns. 
The  cray-fishes  in  endeavouring  'to  get  at  it  become  entangled  among  the  branches,  and 
when  the  faggot  is  drawn  out  a  dozen  or  two  may  be  taken  at  a  single  haul. 

The  Prawns  (Palamoii)  are  marine  Crustacea  which,  in  the  summer-time, 
frequent  the  mouths  of  rivers :  they  are  fished  for  by  means  of  a  net  in  the  form 
of  a  sack  attached  to  the  end  of  a  pole,  or  with  large  nets  with  close  meshes, 
which  are  thrown  to  a  distance  into  the  sea,  and  bring  them  to  the  shore  in 
great  multitudes. 

Mr.  Warrington  has  published  many  interesting  observations  on  the  natural  history 
of  the  prawn.     When  the  period  arrives  at  which  the  prawn  is  about  to  throw  off  its 
old  covering,  it  ceases  to  feed,  and  seeks  about  from  spot  to  spot  in  a  restless  and  fidgety 
manner,  until  it  has  fixed  on  a  locality  suited  to  its  purpose.     The  third,  fourth,  and 
fifth  pair  of  legs  are  then  stretched  out  wide  apart,  and  the  feet  hooked  so  as  to  hold 
firmly  upon  the  surrounding  substances,  in  such  a  way  that  the  body  may  be  poised  and 
capable  of  moving  freely  in  all  directions.     The  prawir  then  slowly  sways  itself  from 
side  to  side  and  to  and  fro  with  strong  muscular  efforts,  apparently  for  the  purpose  of 
loosening  the  whole  surface  of  its  body  from  the  carapace ;  and  when  every  precaution 
has  been  taken  for  the  withdrawal  of  its  body  from  the  too  limited  habiliments,  a  fissure 
is  observed  to  take  place  between  the  carapace  and  the  abdomen,  at  the  upper  and  back 
part,  and  the  antennae,  legs,  feet,  and  all  their  appendages  are  slowly  and  carefully 
drawn  backwards  out  from  the  dorsal  shield  until  the  eyes  are  quite  clear  of  the  body- 
shell  or  carapace.     The  prawn,  thus  half  released,  then  makes  a  sudden  backward 
spring  or  jerk,  and  the  whole  of  the  exuvium  is  left  behind,  generally  adhering  by  the 
cases  of  the  six  feet  to  the  surface  selected  as  a  support.     At  the  moment  the  prawn 
has  thus  been  liberated  from  its  old  envelope,  it  rolls  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  per- 
fectly helpless,  for  it  is  so  soft  that  it  does  not  possess  the  power  of  supporting  its  own 
weight  erect  upon  its  feet,  while  the  beautifully  delicate  antennae  float  from  its  head 
like  gossamer  threads  in  the  water.     In  a  short  time,  however,  it  plunges  or  springs 
from  place  to  place,  stretches  its  webbed  tail  and  the  large  paddles  of  its  swimming 
apparatus,  and  soon  retreats  into  some  dark  and  sheltered  corner  until  its  new  shell  is 
sufficiently  hardened  to  allow  of  its  venturing  forth.     When  the  newly-coated  shrimp 
first  makes-  its  exit  from  its  hiding-place,  its  appearance  is  doubly  beautiful ;  and  the 
deportment  of  the  little  creature  is  altogether  so  bold  and  vainglorious,  as  though 
proud  of  its  new  vesture,  that  it  cannot  but  command  the  admiration  it  seems  to  seek. 
The  Shrimp  ( Crajigon}.    The  Common  Shrimp  ( Crangon  vulgaris]  does  not  exceed 
two  inches  in  length,  and  is  of  a  pale  glaucous  green  colour  dotted  with  grey.    During 
life  the  body  is  semi-transparent,  and  so  much  resembles  sea- water  that  the  animal  is 
distinguished  with  difficulty.     Its  ordinary  motion  consists  of  leaps.    It  is  abundant  in 
sandy  places  on  the  coast,  and  besides  furnishing  nutriment  to  great  numbers  of  fishes, 
aquatic  birds,  &c.,  it  is  in  great  request  for  the  table.     Shrimp-catching,  or  Shrimping 
as  it  is  termed,  affords  constant  employment  on  the  flat  sandy  parts  of  our  coast  to  boys 
and  women,  who  wade  up  to  their  knees,  pushing  a  sort  of  dredge-net  at  the  end  of  a 
long  pole  before  them ;  but  a  more  wholesale  way  of  collecting  them  is  by  means  of 
sweep-nets,  dragged  over  the  fishing-ground  by  men  in  boats. 


CRABS. 


T57 


Brachyura,*  or  Crabs.  These  creatures  are  formed  for  pro- 
gression on  land,  or  at  least  for  creeping  on  the  bottom  of  the 
sea.  The  tail,  the  great  instrument  of  locomotion  in  the  lobster, 
is  in  the  crabs  reduced  to  a  rudiment,  and  the  fin  at  its  extremity 
entirely  obliterated.  The  chclcz  still  continue  to  be  the  most 
powerfully  developed  of  the  limbs,  while  the  legs,  now  become 
the  principal  locomotive  agents,  are  either  terminated  by  simple 
points,  as  in  those  species  which  are  most  terrestrial  in  their  habits, 
or  else,  as  in  the  swimming  crabs,  the  posterior  pair  become  ex- 
panded into  flattened  oars,  xiseful  in  natation. 

The  habits  of  crabs  are  very  various  :  some  are  exclusively 
aquatic,  and  remain  on  the  sands  or  rocks  at  great  depths  in  the 
sea  ;  others  inhabit  excavations  formed  in  the  soft  coral  reefs  or 
bars  on  certain  coasts  ;  some  spend  their  days  altogether  on  a 
shore,  living  in  burrows  or  dens  formed  in  a  moist  or  boggy  soil  ; 
others  resort  to  the  rocky  flats  or  beaches  to  bask  in  the  sun, 
where  only  an  occasional  wave  dashes  over  them,  and  seek  refuge 
in  the  sea  when  alarmed  ;  while  some  species  are  completely 
terrestrial,  inhabiting  holes  upon  the  highest  hills  and  mountains 
of  the  West  Indies. 

The  Spider  Cr^bs  (Ojcyrynchus)^  have  their  shells  of  a  triangular  shape, 
narrowed  in  front  into  a  point  which  almost  resembles  a  beak.  The  legs  are 
long  and  very  slender:  this  necessarily  leads  to  slowness  of  motion;  but  they 
are  well  fitted  to  a  residence  amongst  rocks  and  stones  covered  with  sea-weed, 
among  which  they  stride  with  little  difficulty.  In  the  winter  they  become 
almost,  if  not  altogether,  torpid,  concealing  themselves  at  this  season  either  in 
deep  crevices  of  rocks  or  embedded  in  the  soil.  These  long-legged  crabs  are 
frequently  covered  with  sea-weeds,  sponges,  and  other  marine  productions, 
which  so  completely  change  their  appearance  that  they  are  no  longer  recog- 
nizable. Mr.  Gosse  observed  at  Ilfracombe  the  exuviation  of  a  large'  spider 
crab  which  had  retired  into  a  crevice.  When  securing  it  he  felt  the  body  fall 
away  from  the  carapace,  and  on  looking  at  the  crab,  found  the  new  carapace 
perfectly  formed  and  coloured  beneath  it.  The  limbs  and  the  under  parts  still 
remained  invested  with  their  old  shell.  In  a  short  time  the  hind  legs  wen- 
freed,  and  then  the  animal  extricated  the  front  pair,  tugging  first  at  one  and 
then  .at  the  other  as  if  drawing  off  a  pair  of  .boots.  The  parts  had  a  jelly-like 
softness,  and  seemed  to  be  compressed  as  they  were  liberated  by  the  fluids 
being  forced  back  so  as  to  distend  the  freed  portion  of  the  limb.  Mr.  Gossc 
did  not  observe  any  struggling  —  it  seemed  a  very  simple  and  easy  matter. 
The  new  integuments  were  complete,  though  soft,  before  the  old  were  torn  off; 
and  the  immediate  cause  of  the  separation  of  the  crust  appeared  to  be  the 
sudden  growth  of  the  animal  within  forcing  asunder  the  upper  and  lower  shells 
at  the  posterior  margin. 

The  Swimming  Crabs  (Pinnipcdes)  %  have  the  hinder  feet  terminated  by 


s,  brachys,  short;  ovpa,  oura,  a  tail.         t  o^s,  oxys,  sharp;  pvvxos,  rhynchos, 
a  snout.  +  Pinna,  a  featJier  or  leaflet  ;  pes,  pedis,  afoot. 


158 


DECAPODS. 


a  flat  joint  resembling  a  fin.    They  live  at  a  distance  from  the  shore,  and  swim 
out  into  the  high  sea. 

The  Shore  Crabs  (Cancer]  are  eminently  adapted  for  walking.    The  eight 
hinder  legs  only  are  employed  for  the  purpose,  and  they  are  terminated  by 


FIG.  159. — YOUNG  OF  CRAB. 


strong  and  pointed  claws.  They  walk  with  the  same  facility  forward  or  back- 
ward, on  one  side  or  the  other,  or  in  all  oblique  directions ;  they  also  climb 
with  great  celerity. 

'•£ 


FIG.  160. — FIRST  STAGE  OK  SHORE  CRA 


FIG.  161.— SKCOND  STAGE  OF  SHORE  CRAB. 


The  Edible  Crabs  (Pagurus],  well  known  at  our  tables,  generally  fre- 
quent rocky  coverts,  and  hide  in  the  clefts  of  rocks,  where  they  are  sheltered 
from  the  waves  and  secured  from  the  pursuit  of  their  enemies.  When  the 
waters  rise,  they  approach  the  shore  and  seize  on  marine  animals  incapable 
of  resistance,  or  devour  such  as  have  perished.  It  is  principally  during  the 
night  that  they  proceed  to  plunder.  As  they  do  not  always  regain  the  sea 
with  sufficient  promptness,  and  they  cannot  swim,  they  are  often  exposed  to 


CRABS.  159 

be  stranded  at  the  retreat  of  the  tide.  Under  such  circumstances,  if  they  do 
not  find  a  hole  to  take  refuge  in,  they  contract  their  feet,  squat  down  in  some 
corner,  and  thus  await  with  patience  the  return  of  the  water.  Crab-fishing  is 
usually  conducted  by  two  men,  in  a  boat  provided  with  lines  and  creels,  cruives, 
or  crab-pots,  as  they  are  variously  called,  made  of  a  kind  of  osier  basketwork. 
These  are  constructed  upon  the  same  principle  as  a  wire  mouse-trap,  but  the 
aperture,  instead  of  being  on  the  side,  is  at  the  top.  The  bait,  which  consists 
of  stale  fish,  is  fastened  to  the  bottom,  and  the  creel  is  then  sunk  in  a  favour- 
able situation,  by  stones  of  sufficient  weight  placed  within  it ;  aline  is  fastened 
to  the  creel,  to  the  upper  end  of  which  a  cork  is  attached.  The  bait  can  readily 
be  seen  by  the  crabs,  which  entering,  are  caught  like  rats  in  a  trap;  the  diffi- 
culty of  egress  being  increased  by  the  aperture  being  overhead. 


FIG.  162.— TMIXD  STAGE  OF  SHORE  CRAB. 


Crabs  undergo  a  remarkable  metamorphosis.  On  leaving  the  egg,  their  larva? 
have  a  very  grotesque  appearance.  They  are  furnished  with  a  large  helmet- 
shaped  head,  ending  behind  in  a  long  point,  and  provided  in  front  with  two 
monstrous  sessile  eyes,  like  the  windows  of  a  lantern.  By  means  of  a  long 
articulated  tail,  the  little  creatures  continually  turn  head-over-heels.  Claws 
are  as  yet  wanting,  and  the  young  crab  has  only  four  pairs  of  legs,  armed  with 
long  bristles,  that  push  food  towards  the  ciliated  and  ever-active  mouth. 
Immediately  after  casting  its  first  skin,  the  body  makes  an  approach  to  its 
future  permanent  form,  the  eyes  become  raised  on  stalks,  the  claws  and  feet 
begin  to  make  their  appearance,  but  the  tail  still  remains  like  that  of  a  lobster, 
and  is  used  by  the  young  crab  to  swim  about  merrily  in  the  water.  It  is  not 
until  the  next  moult,  when  the  little  creature  measures  about  one-eighth  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  that  the  mature  form  is  completely  developed.  The  facility 
with  which  these  Crustaceans  cast  off  their  legs,  and  even  their  heavy  claws, 
when  they  have  been  wounded,  is  a  most  remarkable  feature  in  their  economy. 
Without  the  least  appearance  of  pain,  they  continue  to  run  about  upon  their 
remaining  legs,  and,  wonderful  to  relate,  after  some  time  a  new  limb  grows  out 
of  the  old  stump,  and  takes  the  place  of  the  original  member.  When  the  old 
claw  is  separated,  a  scar  forms,  and  remains  until  the  animal  casts  its  shell. 
After  the  shell  is  thus  cast,  a  protuberance  in  the  centre  of  the  scar  suddenly 
enlarges,  and  under  it  may  be  seen  a  small  claw,  doubled  on  itself  beneath  the 
membrane  of  the  stump.  This  remains  in  a  soft  state  until  the  crab  again 
casts  its  shell,  when  the  new  claw  is  set  at  liberty,  straightened  out,  and  be- 
comes hard  and  calcareous,  like  other  parts  of  the  body. 

The  Rider  or  Racer  Crabs  (Ocypoda)*  found  on  the  coasts  of  Syria 

*  WKVS,  okys,  swift;  TTOI/S,  TroSos,  pous,  podos,  afoot. 


160  DECAPODS. 


and  Barbary,  run  so  quickly  that  a  man  on  horseback  is  said  not  to  be  able 
to  overtake  them.  The  West  Indian  species  dig  holes  three  or  four  feet  deep, 
immediately  above  high-water-mark,  and  only  leave  them  after  dusk. 

The  Beckoning  Crabs  (Gelasimus)*  have  one  of  the  claws,  sometimes 
the  right,  sometimes  the  left,  much  larger  than  the  other,  and  the  pincers  of 
the  smaller  forceps  shaped  like  a  spoon.  These  creatures  live  in  burrows, 
which  they  excavate  upon  the  sea-shore,  and  close  the  entrance  by  means  of 
their  large  claw,  the  disproportionate  size  of  which  is  thus  found  to  be  a  won- 
derful and  beautiful  adaptation  to  their  habits.  Their  burrows  are  cylindrical, 
and  carried  obliquely  into  the  ground  to  a  very  considerable  depth  :  they  are 
met  with  in  great  numbers,  placed  close  together,  but  are  usually  inhabited 
each  by  a  single  individual.  From  these  crabs  having  the  habit  of  flourishing 
their  large  claw  as  if  they  were  beckoning  to  some  one  at  a  distance,  they  have 
received  the  name  of  "  Calling  Crabs  "  (Cancer  vocans}.  They  pass  the  winter 
in  their  burrows,  without  stirring  abroad,  and  only  visit  the  sea  to  lay  their 
eggs. 

Dr.  Gardner,  in  his  "  Travels  in  Brazil,"  says  that  while  he  was  near  Rio 
San  Francisco,  he  amused  himself  with  watching  the  operations  of  a  small 
species  belonging  to  the  genus  Gelasimus,  that  was  either  making  or  enlarging 
its  burrow  in  the  sand.  About  once  in  every  two  minutes  it  came  up  to  the 
surface  with  a  quantity  of  sand  enclosed  in  its  left  claw,  which,  by  a  sudden 
jerk,  it  ejected  to  a  distance  of  about  six  inches,  always  taking  care  to  vary 
the  direction  in  which  it  was  thrown,  so  as  to  prevent  its  accumulation  in  one 
place. 

Another  species,  which  inhabits  India,  is  thus  noticed  by  Bishop  Heber  in 
his  journal :  "  All  the  grass  through  the  Deccari  generally  swarms  with  a  small 
land-crab,  which  burrows  in  the  ground,  and  runs  with  considerable  swiftness, 
even  when  encumbered  with  a  bundle  of  food  as  big  as  itself;  this  food  is 
grass  or  the  green  stalks  of  rice ;  and  it  is  amusing  to  see  the  crabs,  sitting, 
as  it  were,  upright,  cut  their  hay  with  their  sharp  pincers,  and  then  waddling 
off  with  their  sheaf  to  their  holes  as  quickly  as  their  sidelong  pace  will  carry 
them.  They  have  been  found  on  the  table-lands,  at  an  elevation  of  nearly 
4,000  feet;  but  it  is  believed  that  they  do  not  perform  an  annual  pilgrimage 
to  the  sea,  for  the  purpose  of  depositing  their  eggs." 

Most  probably  they  prefer  fresh  water. 

The  Cocoa-nut  Crab  (Birgus)  is  said  to  climb  the  cocoa-nut  palms  for 
the  sake  of  procuring  their  fruit ;  but  Mr.  Darwin  says  that  it  merely  lives  upon 
those  that  have  fallen  upon  the  ground.  Its  front  pair  of  legs  is  terminated 
by  very  strong  and  heavy  pincers,  the  last  pair  by  forceps,  which  are  narrow 
and  of  a  weaker  structure.  After  having  selected  a  nut  fit  for  its  dinner,  the 
crab  begins  its  operations  by  tearing  off  the  husk,  fibre  by  fibre,  from  that  end 
where  the  three  holes  are  situated  ;  it  then  hammers  upon  one  of  them  with  its 
heavy  claws  until  an  opening  is  made,  through  which,  by  means  of  its  hinder 
pincers,  it  extracts  the  white  albuminous  substance  of  the  nut.  It  inhabits 
deep  burrows,  where  it  accumulates  surprising  quantities  of  picked  cocoa-nut 
husks,  on  which  it  rests  as  on  abed.  Its  habits  are  diurnal,  but  every  night 
it  is  said  to  pay  a  visit  to  the  sea  for  the  purpose  of  moistening  its  branchiae. 
It  is  Very  good  to  eat,  and  the  fat  accumulated  under  the  tail  of  the  larger 
ones  sometimes  yields  a  quart  of  oil. 

The  Land-Crabs  (Gecarcimis}^  inhabit  the  West  Indies  and  other  warm 

*  7eXdw,  gelao,  to  laugh  at  or  ridicule,     f  777,  ge,  the  earth ;  KO-PKIVOS,  carcinos,  a  crab. 


CRABS.  161 


countries.  These  crabs,  instead  of  frequenting  the  sea,  as  most  Crustaceans 
do,  are  essentially  terrestrial,  and  they  sometimes  live  at  a  considerable  dis- 
tance from  the  shore.  They  nevertheless  avoid  extremely  dry  situations,  and 
are  ordinarily  found  in  marshy  districts.  They  all  dig  deep  holes.  They  are 
commonly  seen  at  night,  or  just  after  abundant  rains,  when  they  sally  forth  in 
crowds  from  their  subterranean  habitations  in  pursuit  of  food.  Some  species 
live  principally  on  vegetables,  but  others  seek  animal  food  with  avidity ;  great 
numbers  are  found  in  cemeteries.  One  of  the  most  curious  points  in  the 
history  of  these  animals  is  that  they  make  an  annual  journey  to  the  sea-shore. 
In  the  rainy  season  they  abandon  their  holes,  congregate  in  almost  number- 
less troops,  and,  guided  by  an  instinct  which  is  incomprehensible  to  us,  take 
a  direct  line  towards  the  sea,  although  they  may  be  very  distant  from  it. 
They  travel  chiefly  by  night,  and  nothing  but  large  rivers  can  arrest  or  turn 
them  from  their  route ;  they  climb  over  houses,  scale  rocks,  and  often  destroy 
whole  plantations,  cutting  and  devouring  the  young  plants  as  they  pass  along. 
Having  reached  the  sea,  these  armies  of  crabs  plunge  in  and  bathe  several 
times,  and  then  retire  to  the  plains  or  neighbouring  woods.  Some  time  after- 
wards the  females  go  again  to  the  sea,  and  there  deposit  their  eggs ;  then  they 
resume  their  march  and  return  to  their  ordinary  abode,  but  are  so  thin  and 
feeble  that  they  can  scarcely  drag  themselves  along. 

Some  of  these  crabs  take  up  their  abode  in  the  vicinity  of  sugar-cane  fields, 
and  are  very  injurious  to  the  planters,  being  at  certain  seasons  particularly 
fond  of  the  cane,  the  juice  of  which  they  suck  and  chiefly  subsist  on.  They 
are  of  course  narrowly  watched,  and  no  opportunity  of  catching  them  is  ne- 
glected; but  such  is  the  wonderful  facility  they  have  in  running,  or  rather 
darting,  in  any  direction,  or  with  any  part  of  their  bodies  foremost,  that  they 
are  almost  always  enabled  to  elude  capture.  It  is  seldom,  moreover,  that 
they  go  far  from  their  burrows  in  the  day-time,  and  their  vigilance  is  such  that 
they  regain  them  in  a  moment,  and  instantly  disappear  so  soon  as  a  man  or 
dog  comes  near  enough  to  be  seen. 

If  we  now  pass  to  the  consideration  of  the 

Queer-tailed  Decapods  (Anomoura),  we  find  that  the  limbs 
above  enumerated,  although  existing  in  precisely  similar  situations 
as  in  the  lobster,  are  so  far  modified  in  their  construction  and  rela- 
tive proportions,  as  to  become  suited  to  a  mode  of  life  widely 
different  from  that  led  by  the  members  of  the  last  division. 

The  Anomoura,  *  as  their  name  imports,  have  limbs  of  very 
anomalous  conformation.  Instead  of  being  cased  in  a  hard  coat 
of  mail,  the  hinder  part  of  the  body  is  soft  and  leathery,  possess- 
ing only  a  few  detached  shelly  pieces,  comparable,  it  is  true,  to 
those  found  in  the  lobster,  but  strangely  altered  in  structure. 

These  animals,  usually  known  by  the  name  of 

Soldier  Crabs  or  Hermit  Crabs,  frequent  level  and  sandy 
shores,  and  from  their  defenceless  condition  are  obliged  to  resort 
to  artificial  protection.  This  they  do  by  selecting  an  empty  shell, 

anomos,  lawless ;  otpa,  oura,  a  tail. 

11 


162 


DECAPODS. 


FIG.  163.     SOLDIER  CRAB  OCCTTYING  AN  EMPTY  SHELL. 

generally  that  of  a  whelk,  of  proportionate  size,  into  which  they 
insinuate  their  tail,  and  retreating  within  the  recesses  of  their 

adopted  abode,  obtain  a 
secure  retreat,  which  they 
drag  after  them  wherever 
they  go,  until,  by  grow- 
ing larger,  they  are  com- 
pelled to  leave  it,  in 
search  of  a  more  capa- 
cious lodging.  The  won- 
derful adaptation  of  all 
the  limbs  to  a  residence 
in  such  a  dwelling  can- 
not fail  to  strike  the  most 
incurious  observer.  The 
cJicla,  or  large  claws, 
differ  remarkably  in  size, 
so  that  when  the  hermit 
crab  retires  into  its  con- 

FIG.  i64.-SoLDiER  CKAB  REMOVED  FROM  ITS  SHELL.      Cealment,  the  Smaller  One 

may   be    entirely   with- 
drawn, while  the  larger  closes  and  guards  the  entrance.    The  two 


SHRIMPS.  163 


succeeding  pairs  of  legs,  unlike  those  of  the  lobsters,  are  of  great 
size  and  strength,  and  instead  of  being  terminated  by  pincers, 
end  in  strong  pointed  levers,  whereby  the  animal  can  not  only 
crawl,  but  drag  after  it  its  heavy  habitation.  Behind  these  loco- 
motive legs  are  two  feeble  pairs,  barely  strong  enough  to  enable 
the  soldier  crab  to  shift  its  position  in  the  shell  it  has  chosen,  and 
the  false  feet  attached  to  the  abdomen  are  still  more  rudimentary. 
But  the  most  singularly  altered  portion  is  the  fin  at  the  end  of 
the  tail,  which  here  becomes  transformed  into  a  kind  of  holding 
apparatus,  by  which  the  creature  retains  a  firm  grasp  upon  the 
interior  of  its  residence. 


FOOT-MOUTHED  CRUSTACEANS.    ORDER  STOMAPODA.* 

The  Stomapoda  (Foot-mouthed  Crustaceans)  are  so  called 
because  their  feet  are  collected  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
mouth.  In  this  order  the  principal  organ  of  locomotion  is  the 
tail,  which,  broadly  spread  and  armed  with  a  beautiful  expansion 
at  its  extremity,  carries  beneath  it  the  false  feet,  here  developed 
into  five  pairs  of  broad  leaf-like  organs,  which  constitute  the  in- 
struments of  respiration.  The  integuments  of  the  Stomapods 
are  thin  and  almost  membranous. 


FIG.  165. — MANTIS  SHRIMP. 

The  Mantis  Shrimp  (Squilla  mantis]  is  remarkable  on  account  of  the  strange 
resemblance  between  its  fore-legs  and  those  of  the  insect  Mantis,  described  in  a  pre- 

*  oTo/xa,  stoma,  the  mouth  ;  TTOVS,  pous,  afoot. 

11—2 


1 54  AMPHIPODS. 

ceding  chapter.  Its  carapace  covers  only  the  anterior  half  of  the  thorax  ;  the  hinder 
portion  being  formed  of  rings  like  those  of  the  abdomen.  It  is  provided  with  enormous 
claws,  terminating  in  a  sharp  hook  ;  the  last  joint  furnished  with  six  sharp  projecting 
spines,  and  the  preceding  joint  with  three,  and  so  hollowed  as  to  render  this  claw  a 
most  efficient  instrument  of  prehension.  The  other  foot-jaws,  and  the  three  anterior 
pairs  of  thoracic  members,  share  in  this  conformation,  and  serve  to  hold  the  prey 
against  the  mouth.  The  three  posterior  pairs  of  legs,  which  are  attached  to  the  annu- 
lated  portion  of  the  thorax,  are  furnished  with  a  brush  instead  of  a  hook  at  their  ex- 
tremities, and  more  resemble  the  abdominal  swimming-legs.  The  tail  is  expanded  into 
a  broad  fin.  By  the  nature  of  its  conformation,  we  see  that  this  animal  is  adapted  both 
for  seizing  and  holding  its  prey,  as  well  as  for  swimming,  but  not  at  all  for  walking. 

Dr.  Lakis  has  published  the  following  observations  on  the  habits  of  a  specimen  that 
he  kept  alive  in  a  basin  of  sea- water  for  two  days  :  "It  sported  about,  and  exhibited  a 
boldness  rather  unexpected.  When  alarmed  it  sprang  backwards  with  great  velocity, 
after  which  it  placed  itself  in  a  menacing  attitude.  The  prominent  appearance  of  the 
eyes,  their  brilliancy  and  attentive  watching,  the  feeling  power  of  the  long  antennae, 
evinced  quick  apprehension  and  instinct.  I  brought  a  silver  spoon  near  them,  which 
was  struck  out  of  my  hand  with  a  suddenness  and  force  comparable  to  that  ot  an  electric 
shock.  This  blow  was  inflicted  by  the  large  arms,  which  were  closed  and  projected 
in  an  instant  with  the  quickness  of  lightning.  An  apparent  anxiety  to  keep  the  head 
and  claws  in  front,  made  me  suspect  that  the  animal  lodges  its  hinder  parts  in  holes  or 
recesses,  from  which  it  can  strike  at  its  prey  or  other  passing  objects." 

The  Opossum  Shrimps  (Mysis]  have  their  branchiae  sometimes  attached 
to  the  abdominal  legs,  sometimes  to  the  thoracic  legs,  but  they  are  never  en- 
closed within  the  carapace.  These  animals 
have  received  the  name  of  Opossum  Shrimps 
from  the  curious  pouch,  formed  of  plates 
attached  to  the  abdominal  legs,  in  which  the 
female  protects  both  her  eggs  and  young 
until  the  latter  have  attained  considerable 
development. 

The  opossum  shrimps  abound  in  the  nor- 
thern seas.  The  Arctic  Ocean  teems  with 
myriads,  forming  not  troops, but  vast  clouds, 
spreading  over  square  leagues  of  water,  and 
affording  sufficient  and  most  nutritive  food 
for  the  whale,  and  for  the  prodigious  shoals 
of  salmon  that  visit  the  shores  of  Boothia 
Fir,.  i66.-Orossc.M  SHRIMP.  during  July  and  August,  and  upon  which 

the  inhabitants  of  that  dreary  region  depend 

in  a  great  measure  for  their  supply  of  winter  provisions.  During  summer  the 
opossum  shrimps  absolutely  crowd  the  mouths  of  the  rivers,  and  there  their 
destroyers  revel  in  a  continual  feast. 

AMPHIPOD  CRUSTACEANS.    ORDER  AMPIIIPODA.* 

In  the  succeeding  Crustaceans  the  eyes  are  sessile,  that  is,  not 
supported  on  jointed  stems,  and  consequently  motionless.  The 
legs  appended  to  the  different  segments  vary  much  in  their  struc- 

*  &fj.<pt}  am  phi,  of  hvo  sorts  ;  TTOI/S,  pous,  afoot. 


SAND-HOPPERS. 


ture.  The  Amphipods  have  their  limbs  arranged  in  two  groups 
opposed  to  each  other.  Their  body  is  generally  compressed  and 
curved  towards  the  breast ;  they  swim  and  leap  with  facility,  but 
always  lying  on  one  side.  Some  of  them  inhabit  fresh  water,  but 
by  far  the  greater  number  are  marine. 

The  importance  of  these  Crustaceans  in  the  economy  of  Nature 
is  very  great — making  up  for  the  smallness  of  their  size  by  the 
immense  numbers  in  which  they  exist  and  the  ubiquity  of  their 
presence.  They  are  ready  at  the  first  moment  to  seize  upon  the 
dead  matter  that  constitutes  their  ordinary  food,  and  thus  to  act 
their  part  as  scavengers  of  the  ocean  without  the  least  delay, 
whilst  in  their  turn  they  furnish  an  abundance  of  excellent  nou- 
rishment to  fish  and  other  aquatic  animals.  To  this  Order  belong 

The  Sand-hoppers  (Gammarus}*  These  animals  may  be  seen  in  abun- 
dance by  the  sea-side  in  summer-time,  where 
they  carry  on  a  continual  warfare  against  the 
Annelidans  of  all  sorts  found  on  the  shore. 
Nothing  is  more  curious  than  to  see  them, 
when  the  tide  is  coming  in,  congregated  in 
myriads,  beating  the  sand  in  all  directions 
in  search  of  their  victims.  No  sooner  do 
they  meet  with  one  of  their  favourite  worms, 
than  they  attack  it,  and  although  it  may  be 
ten  times  their  own  size,  soon  kill  and  de- 
vour it.  They  never  leave  off  this  work  of 
butchery  till  they  have  fairly  gone  over  all 
the  mud  upon  the  shore.  They  are  equally 
ready  to  attack  the  Mollusca,  fishes,  or  even 
human  bodies  cast  up  upon  the  beach.  In 
their  turn,  they  supply  an  abundant  stock 
of  food  to  multitudes  of  shore-birds  and  fishes. 

Dr.  Sutherland  relates  that  in  Davis  Straits  he  has  seen  an  entire  seal  re- 
duced to  a  perfect  skeleton  in  less  than  two  days  by  Gammanis  arcticus. 

It  is  a  species  of  Sand-hopper  ( Talitrus},  that  is  alluded  to  by  Archdeacon  Paley,  as 
exemplifying  the  abundance  of  happiness  bestowed  on  the  lower  animals.  "Walking 
by  the  sea-side  in  a  calm  evening  upon  a  sandy  shore,  with  an  ebbing  tide,  I  have  fre- 
quently remarked  the  appearance  of  a  dark  cloud,  or  rather  very  tliick  mist,  hanging 
over  the  edge  of  the  water,  to  the  height,  perhaps,  of  half  a  yard,  and  of  the  breadth 
of  two  or  three  yards,  stretching  along  the  coast  as  far  as  the  eye  could  reach,  and 
always  retiring  with  the  water.  When  this  cloud  came  to  be  examined,  it  proved  to 
be  nothing  else  than  so  much  space  filled  with  young  shrimps,  in  the  act  of  bounding 
into  the  air  from  the  shallow  margin  of  the  water  or  from  the  wet  sand.  If  any  motion 
of  a  mute  animal  could  express  delight,  it  was  this  ;  if  they  could  have  made  signs  of 
their  happiness,  they  could  not  have  done  it  more  intelligibly." 

In  order  to  leap,  they  bend  the  appendages  to  their  tail  under  their  body,  and  then 
forcibly  straighten  them  as  though  they  were  let  go  by  a  spring,  exactly  like  the  Podurse 
or  spring-tails  among  insects. 


FIG.  167. — TALITKUS — SAND-HOPPER. 


*  KdftfMfOf,  kammaros,  a  kind  of  crab  or  shrimp. 


1 66  ISOPODS. 


THROAT-FOOTED  CRUSTACEANS.    ORDER  L^EMODIPODA.* 

The  body  of  these   creatures  is  slender  and  elongated,  and 

composed  of  eight  or  nine 
segments.  The  four  front 
legs,  which  are  always 
the  largest,  are  attached 
to  the  neck,  and  are  ter- 
minated by  a  prehensile 
hook.  The  hinder  legs 
are  shorter  and  their  ar- 
mature more  feeble.  The 
females  carry  their  eggs 
between  the  second  and 
third  segments  of  the 

FIG.  168.— CAPRELLA. 

body,    in  a  little   pouch 

formed  of  scaly  pieces.  The  species  are  all  marine.  Some  of 
them  live  amongst  sea-weeds,  upon  which  they  crawl,  much  after 
the  manner  of  the  caterpillars  called  Loopers.  They  are,  how- 
ever, likewise  able  to  swim.  Others  are  found  to  live  parasitically 
upon  whales,  a  circumstance  which  has  obtained  for  them  the 
name  of  Whale-Lice  ;  they  have  likewise  been  seen  upon  the 
mackerel. 

EQUAL-FOOTED  CRUSTACEANS — ORDER  ISOPODA-J-— 

Differ  from  the  preceding  in  many  important  particulars.  The 
two  anterior  feet  are  never  annexed  to  the  head,  but  are  appended 
to  a  distinct  segment,  and  furnished  with  simple  pointed  claws. 
In  some  species  which  are  terrestrial  in  their  habits,  two  of  the 
antennae  (the  middle  pair)  are  almost  obliterated.  The  females 
carry  their  eggs  attached  to  the  under  part  of  their  body,  either 
enclosed  by  scaly  plates  or  lodged  in  a  membranous  pouch.  The 
young  are  born  in  every  respect  resembling  their  parents,  and 
only  change  their  skin  as  they  increase  their  size.  The  greater 
number  live  in  the  water,  and  those  which  reside  on  the  land 
require  a  certain  degree  of  dampness  to  enable  them  to  respire. 
We  select,  as  an  example  of  this  Order,  the  redoubtable 

Boring  Shrimp  (Limnoria  terebrans],  so  called  from  its  habit  of  boring  into 
wood  submerged  beneath  the  surface  of  the  sea.     Although  this  little  creature  is  not 

*  \atfjios,  laimos,  the  throat ;  <u's,  dis,  tunce ;  TTOVS,  T0o6s,  pous,  podos,  afoot. 
t  <'fOs,  isos,  equal ;  -TTOVS,  a  foot. 


BRANCHIOPODS.  167 

more  than  two  lines  in  length,  it  is,  from  its  habits  and  its  rapid  multiplication,  very 
destructive.  It  pierces  the  planks  of  ships  in  every  direction  with  alarming  rapidity, 
and  in  sea-ports  and  dockyards  its  ravages  are  very  serious.  "When  seized,  it  rolls  itself 
up  into,  a  ball. 

The    Cliehtra   tcrcbrans    is   another    timber-destroyer, 
equally  formidable.     It  excavates  the  wood,  not  merely 
for  the  purpose  of  concealment,  but  with  the  object  of 
employing  it  as  food.     It  will  freely  attach  itself  to  a  piece 
cf  wood  placed  with  it  in  a  glass  of  water,  so  that  its  habits 
may  be  studied  in  confinement.     Timber  which  has  been 
subjected  to  the  ravages  of  Chdnra  presents  a  somewhat 
different  appearance  from  that  which  has  been  attacked  by          FlG- 169  •  -LirtuoMA 
Limnoria  terebrans.     In  the  latter  we  find  deep  cylindrical 
grooves  running  deep  into  the  interior,  while  the  excava- 
tions of  Chelnra  are  consideral  1;  larger  and  more  oblique  in  their  direction,  so  that  the 
>urface  of  the  timber  thus  undermined  by  those  animals  is  rapidly  washed  away  by  the 
action  of  the  sea,  and  the  excavations  are  exposed  in  the  greater  part  of  their  extent, 
the  wood  appearing  ploughed  up,  so  to  speak,  rather  than  burrowed  into.      Upon  the 
\.hole,  C/it'/iua  would  seem  to  be  a  more  destructive  creature  than  even  Limnoria. 

The  Fresh-water  Shrimps  (Aselhis]  are  met  with  abundantly  in  our 
ponds  and  streams.     They  walk  with  difficulty,  but  swim  rapidly,  lying  on  the 
side.    The  eggs  of  the  female  are  carried  in  a  bag  attached  beneath  the  body. 
They  are  very  voracious,  and  as  they  eagerly  devour  all  dead  animal  sub 
stances,  are  beneficial  agents  in  purifying  the  water. 

The  "Wood- Lice  (Oniscus)  are  terrestrial  in  their  habits.  They  are  to  be 
met  with  everywhere  in  dark  and  damp  situations,  such  as  caverns,  cellars,  in 
holes  in  old  walls,  under  stones  or  beams  of  wood,  window-sashes,  and  similar 
localities.  They  feed  entirely  upon  decayed  animal  and  vegetable  substances, 
and  never  leave  their  retreat  except  in  rainy  or  damp  weather. 


GILL-FOOTED  CRUSTACEANS.    ORDER  BRAXCHIOPODA.* 

Any  one  who  has  ever  examined  a  phial  of  water  taken  from 
any  ditch  must  have  observed  in- it  a  variety  of  tiny  but  most 
indefatigable  little  creatures,  that  move  actively  by  short  jerks, 
or  dart  to  and  fro  with  a  rapidity  that  the  eye  can  scarcely  follow. 
The  jerking  ones  (Fig.  i/o,  3)  are  species  of  Daphnia  ;  the  more 
fleet,  darting  forms  are  of  the  genus  Cyclops  (Fig.  170,1);  and 
another  tribe,  still  more  varied' in  shape,  that  keep  chiefly  near 
the  bottom,  and  creep  nimbly  more  than  they  swim,  are  the  Cy- 
prides  (Fig.  170,  2):  all  these,  under  a  microscope,  are  exceedingly 
beautiful  Some  have  their  bodies  enclosed  between  two  delicate 
plates,  united  above  the  back,  and  resembling  a  bivalve  shell; 
this  shell  is  usually  more  or  less  transparent,  and  delicately  tesse- 
lated,  or  marked  with  an  intricate  network  of  raised  lines.  The 

*  Ppdvxia>  branchia,  gills  ;  TTOVS,  7ro56s,  pous,  podos,  a  foot:  so  called  because  their  feet 
perform  the  iunctions  of  gills. 


i63 


BRANCHIOPODS. 


antennae  are  often  curiously  branched,  and  appear  to  be  used  as 
oars.  It  is  a  remarkable  character  of  all  these  pretty  little  "  water- 
fleas  "  that  they  seem  to  have  but  a  single  eye,  which  is  generally 
of  a  bright  crimson  hue,  sparkling  like  a  little  ruby,  and  set  in  the 
front  of  the  head. 


FIG.  170. — WATER-FLEAS:  i.  Cyclops  communis ;  2.  Cypris  nnifasciata  ;  3.  Daphnia pule*. 

Some  of  these  Entomostraca*  as  they  are  called  (that  is,  in- 
sects with  shells),  inhabit  the  sea,  and  may  be  met  with  in  abun- 
dance in  clear  pools  worn  in  the  rocks,  sporting  about  amongst 


FIG.  171.— MARINE  ENTOMOSTRACA  (Cythere  albo-macnlata  and  Cyclops  chelifer\ 

the  confervas  and  corallines  that  often  so  fancifully  fringe  their 
edges  and  decorate  their  sides,  forming  a  miniature  sub-aqueous 
forest,  for  myriads  of  living  creatures  to  disport  themselves  in. 
Two  examples  of  these  marine  forms  are  represented  in  the  ac- 
companying figure  (Fig.  171). 

*  ^.TO/JOS,  entomos,  an  insect ;  SarpaKov,  ostrakon,  a  shell— i.e. ,  insects  with  shells. 


CYCLOPS.    '  169 

The  Branchiopod  Entomostracans  are  divided  into  two  sec- 
tions,— first,  those  with  tufted  feet  (Lophyropes)  ;*  and  secondly, 
those  with  laminated  feet  (Phyllopes).t 

The  Tufted-feet  Entmostracans  (Lophyropes)  are  distinguish- 
able by  the  number  of  their  feet,  which  never  exceed  ten  ;  their 
legs,  moreover,  are  cylindrical,  and  never  flattened  out  into  leaf- 
like  expansions.  To  this  division  belong 

The  Cyclops  (Cyclops],  so  called  on  account  of  their  having 
apparently  but  one  eye.  J 

The  Common  Cyctops  (Cyclops  vulgar  is)  (Fig.  170,  i),  remarkable  for  the  me- 
tamorphoses it  undergoes,  is  common  in  fresh  water.  On  each  side  of  the  tail  of  the 
female  is  a  pellucid  oval  sac,  filled  with  eggs,  with  which  it  is  replenished  eight  or  ten 
times  in  the  course  of  three  months ;  and  as  the  female  begins  to  lay  at  an  early  age, 
supposing  the  average  number  of  eggs  to  be  forty  each  time,  the  multitude  of  which  a 
.single  individual  may  become  the  progenitor  during  six  months  is  enormous.  The  young 
at  their  birth  have  only  four  feet,  and  their  body  is  rounded  and  tailless :  in  due  time 
other  limbs  appear,  and  after  a  few  moults  the  tail  is  developed.  These  little  creatures 
are  capable  of  resisting  cold  in  a  remarkable  manner.  They  have  been  repeatedly  seen 
frozen  up  in  ice,  which  on  melting  was  full  of  them,  as  active  as  ever.  They  will  also 
endure  being  dried,  but  not  for  many  minutes.  Jurine  found  that  out  of  twelve  indi- 
viduals dried  for  fifteen  minutes,  five  only  recovered  on  being  restored  to  the  water,  and 
that  of  twelve  kept  dry  for  twenty-five  minutes  all  perished.  Yet,  as  in  seasons  of  drought 
the  ponds  and  ditches  are  dried,  it  is  most  probable  that  they  retain  life  when  buried  in 
the  mud  as  long  as  any  moisture  remains.  The  eggs,  moreover,  according  to  Strauss, 
do  not  perish,  even  should  the  parents,  but  become  hatched  in  the  course  of  four  or  five 
days,  when  the  ponds  are  replenished.  As  these  little  creatures  grow,  they  change  their 
shells  or  transparent  horny  investment,  like  other  Crustaceans.  This  change  of  shell  is 
very  complete :  not  only  the  general  investment  of  the  body  is  thrown  off,  but  also  the 
outer  layer  of  the  fine  branchiae  and  the  minutest  hairs  on  the  antennas.  The  size  of 
the  adult  Cyclops  is  about  the  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch. 

The  Cythereas  (Cythere)  (Fig.  171)  are  marine:  they  live  among  the  fuci 
and  confervas  found  in  little  pools  among  the  shingle  on  the  sea-shore,  and  the 
naturalist  may  specially  find  them  in  abundance  in  those  beautiful  clear  little 
round  wells,  hollowed  out  of  the  rocks,  which  are  within  reach  of  the  renova- 
ting influence  of  the  tide.  In  such  delightful  pools,  sheltered  among  the 
"umbrageous  multitudes"  of  stems  and  branches,  and  nestling  in  security, 
weak  and  powerless  as  such  pigmies  seem  to  be,  they  are  found  as  numerous 
and  active  after  the  shores  have  been  desolated  by  the  power  of  a  fierce  tem- 
pest as  when  the  waves  have  rolled  gently  and  calmly  to  the  beach  with  their 
sweetest  murmurs. 

The  Cyprides  (Cypris)  (Fig.  170,2)  have  only  six  legs,  and  their  fcvo  an- 
tennae are  furnished  with  a  tuft  of  hair  apiece ;  their  body  is  enclosed  in  an 
oval  shell,  compressed  at  the  sides.  These  little  creatures  swim  with  consider- 
able rapidity,  apparently  by  means  of  their  antennas ;  they  are  likewise  able 
to  crawl  with  their  little  hooked  feet  upon  the  surface  of  submerged  plants. 

*X60ot'pos,  lophouros,  tail  furnished  until  long  hairs  ;  TTOVS,  pous,  afoot. 
f  (f>u\\ov,  phyllon,  a  leaf ;  TTOI'S,  pous,  a  foot. 

j  KVK\w\f/,  cyclops,  literally  "  rounJ-,ye<J  ;"  so  called  after  the  fabled  giants  said  to 
have  had  but  one  eye  in  the  middle  of  their  forehead. 


T7o  XIPHOSURL 


The  female  lays  her  numerous  eggs  upon  the  stems  of  vegetables  or  on  the 
mud,  sometimes  as  many  as  eighty  at  a  birth ;  and,  strange  to  say,  the  females 
hatched  from  these  eggs,  although  kept  quite  apart  from  the  males,  are  equally 
prolific  with  the  rest. 

The  Daphnise  (Daplmice)  (Fig.  170,3)  are  likewise  enclosed  in  a  shelly 
covering,  and  swim  actively  by  means  of  their  tufted  antennae.  Their  fecun- 
dity is  prodigious,  as  the  female  will  lay  many  successive  generations  of  eggs 
in  the  course  of  the  summer,  all  of  which  give  birth  to  equally  fertile  females. 
It  has  been  calculated  that  the  progeny  of  a  single  individual  may  amount  even 
during  her  lifetime  to  four  billions  and  a  half,  the  aggregate  of  which  would 
weigh  nearly  eight  tons. 

The  second  section  of  Branchiopod  Entomostracans,  that  of 

The  Phyllopeds  (Phyllopd},  includes  those  genera  whose  legs,  at  least 
twenty  in  number,  are  composed  of  flattened  and  leaf-like  lamina:.  Their 
eyes  are  always  two  in  number,  and  sometimes  pedunculated. 

To  this  section  belong 

The  Fairy  Shrimps  {Chirocepkalus  diaphanns]  (Fig.  172),  occasionally  met  with 
in  ponds.  These  pretty  creatures,  which  are  as  transparent  as  i^lass,  swim  or  rather 


FIG.  172. — FAIRY  SIIRIMT. 

glide  through  the  water  with  their  backs  downwards,  whilst  the  undulating  play  of  their 
numerous  legs  causes  currents  that  bring  nutritive  particles  towards  their  mouth  in  a 
continuous  stream. 

The  Salt-water  Shrimps  (Artemia  salina)  are  met  with  in  the  salt-pans  at 
Lymington,  where  they  live  in  a  brine  sufficiently  strong  to  pickle  a  round  of  beef. 

SWORD-TAILED  CRUSTACEANS.    ORDER  XIPHOSURL* 

This  Order  contains  but  a  single  genus,  namely, 
The  King   Crabs  (Limulus),  a  most  extraordinary  race  of 
creatures,  commonly  met  with  on  the  shores  of  tropical  climates 
both  of  the  old  and  new  world.     In  these  animals  the  tail  is  con- 
solidated  into  a  single  piece,  forming  a  long,  pointed,  and  ex- 

*  £i'0os,  xiphos,  a  sti'ord ;  ovpa,  oura,  a  tail. 


KING   CRABS. 


tremely  hard  spine,  furnished  with  jagged  edges,  and  a  point  so 
sharp  that,  in  the  hands  of  savages,  it  forms  a  weapon  of  most 
formidable  character.  The  king  crab  has  no  distinct  head,  but 
its  body  is  covered  with  a  broad  thin  shell,  somewhat  resembling 
in  its  shape  the  hoof  of  a  horse  —  hence  they  have  obtained  the 
name  of"  Horse-foots"  from  the  inhabitants  of  the  coasts  where 
they  are  found.  On  turning  over  this  singular  creature,  we  find 
that  it  possesses  six  pairs  of  well-formed  feet,  the  thighs  or  basal 
joints  of  which,  armed  with  teeth  and  spines,  serve  the  extra- 
ordinary purpose  of  jaws,  being  used  to  masticate  the  food  and 
force  it  into  the  mouth,  which  is  situated  between  them.  Behind 


Fie,,  i;;.   -R:.\G  CRAB. 

these  are  several  other  pairs  of  legs  of  very  different  structure : 
they  are  leaf-like,  and  perform  the  office  of  gills,  each  carrying 
on  its  outer  edge  a  series  of  thin  plates  somewhat  resembling  the 
leaves  of  a  book,  and  thus  affording  a  considerable  respiratory 
surface.  The  first  pair  of  these  gill-feet  are  very  large,  and  over- 
lap all  the  others  so  as  to  protect  and  conceal  them.  The  king 
crabs  frequently  come  ashore,  traversing  the  flat  sandy  beaches, 
and  look  like  self-moving  shields,  none  of  the  limbs  being  visible. 
They  endure  with  difficulty  the  heat  of  the  sun,  and,  when 
stranded,  often  bury  themselves  for  shelter.  Their  food  consists 
of  animal  substances.  Some  are  of  very  large  size,  occasionally 
measuring  upwards  of  two  feet  in  length.  The  savages  of  the 
Moluccas  are  in  the  habit  of  employing  the  caudal  spikes  as  heads 
for  their  spears  and  points  for  their  arrows.  These  animals  are 
so  common  on  the  coasts  of  the  West  Indies  and  of  the  American 
continent  south  of  New  York,  that,  being  slow  in  their  movements 
and  easily  capsized  by  the  waves,  their  dead  bodies  sometimes 
cover  the  'shore  to  such  an  extent  that  a  person  might  walk  on 
them  for  ten  miles  without  ever  touching  the  ground  :  the  hogs 


1 72  SUCTORIAL   CRUSTACEANS. 

are  regularly  driven  to  the  beach  to  feed  on  them,  and  their  bodies 
are  carted  into  the  country  to  be  used  as  manure.  In  China  their 
eggs  are  used  as  an  article  of  food. 

SUCTORIAL  CRUSTACEANS.    ORDER  SIPHONOSTOMATA.* 

The  Suctorial  Crustaceans  have  the  mouth  adapted  for 
sucking  the  juices  that  they  obtain  from  the  bodies  of  other 
animals  ;  they  are,  therefore,  essentially  parasitic.  They  are  met 
with  adherent  to  the  skins  and  eyes  of  fishes,  or  sometimes  to 
their  gills  and  the  interior  of  their  mouths.  Their  forms  are  ex- 
tremely variable,  and  all  appear  to  undergo  several  transforma- 
tions in  their  progress  from  birth  ta  maturity.  This  group 
embraces 

The  Pycnogons,t  strange-looking  creatures,  of  small  size,  with  very  long 
limbs,  and  their  body  divided  into  segments.  They  mostly  take  up  their  abode 
under  stones  along  the  coast,  or  are  found  crawling  upon  sea-weed,  or  some- 
times they  hook  themselves  on  to  fishes  and  other  marine  animals. 


FIG.  174.— PYCNOGON.  FIG.  175.  — LERNEAX. 

The  Fish-Lice,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  the  Caligus  Mtilleri, 
found  adhering  to  the  gill-covers  of  the  cod-fish,  to  which  it  holds  on  by  claws 
that  terminate  its  fore-limbs,  while  with  its  beak  it  sucks  the  food  upon  which 
it  lives.  All  of  these  animals  are  parasitic,  and  are  found  attached  to  the  gills 
or  other  parts  of  fishes  by  means  of  a  formidable  apparatus  of  hooks  and 
suckers  ;  some  species  seem  permanently  fixed  to  their  victims,  but  others  arc 
able  to  relax  their  hold  at  will  and  change  their  place. 

The  Lerneans  constitute  a  very  extensive  group  remarkable  for  the  sin- 
gularity of  their  appearance.  When  young  they  resemble  the  young  of  Cyclops, 
and  are  then  provided  with  a  frontal  eye  and  natatory  limbs,  swimming  with 
facility  ;  but  having  undergone  a  certain  number  of  moults,  they  cease  to  lead 
an  erratic  life.  The  limbs  now,  no  longer  needed,  become  lost  or  waste  away. 
The  eye  generally  disappears  and  the  body  assumes  a  strange  form.  The 
female  is  at  this  time  found  fixed  to  some  fish  or  other  aquatic  animal  by 

*  ai(f><i}v,  siphon,  a  sucking-pipe ;  0-ro/u.a,  stoma,  a  mouth. 
f  TTVKVOS,  pycnos,  thick;  yovv,  gony,  the  knee. 


WHEEL-ANIMALC  ULFS.  1 7  3 

means  of  curious  appendages  resembling  distorted  limbs  or  moveable  claws. 
As  an  example,  we  mention  the  Lcmea  monilaris,  which  attaches  itself  to  the 
eye  of  the  sprat,  plunging  its  whole  head  into  the  coats  of  that  organ,  where 
it  is  retained  by  means  of  barbed  projections.  It  is  luminous  in  the  dark,  and 
the  fishermen  are  accustomed  to  call  the  unfortunate  fishes  thus  infested 
"  lantern  sprats.'' 

WHEEL-ANIMALCULES.    ORDER  ROTIFERA.* 

Our  stagnant  waters  everywhere  abound  with  innumerable 
tribes  of  microscopic  animalcules,  some  of  which  have  been  de- 
scribed in  an  early  chapter.  Returning  to  this  spectacle,  suppose 
we  take  from  any  pool  a  leaf  of  duck-weed,  with  a  few  drops 
adhering  to  it,  and  placing  this  beneath  our  microscope,  carefully 
inspect  the  little  world  exhibited  within.  The  crowds  of  Infusoria 
are  recognized  at  once,  as  they  go  gliding  past  or  sporting  in  a 
mazy  dance ;  but  ever  and  anon  there  comes  rushing  among  their 
swarms,  like  a  fierce  tiger  through  a  flock  of  sheep,  some  monster 
of  a  different  kind,  having  on  its  head  what  appear  to  be  great 
wheels,  that  spin  continually  round  and  round,  and,  like  the 
paddles  of  a  steamboat,  serve  to  move  it  through  the  water.  The 
animals  in  question  have  been  named  Rotifcra  or  "  Wheel-bearers." 
In  their  size  they  much  exceed  the  humbler  Infusoria,  over  which 
they  tyrannize.  Their  length  may  be  roughly  estimated  at  about 
one-fiftieth  to  one-hundredth  of  an  inch  —  terrific  giants  when 
compared  with  the  small  fry  around  them,  although  themselves 
scarcely  perceptible  by  unassisted  vision. 

The  distinguishing  character  from  which  these  minute  but 
highly-organized  beings  have  derived  their  name,  is  the  remark- 
able appearance  of  their  so-called  wheels.  This  exactly  resembles 
the  movement  of  the  crown-wheel  of  a  watch  in  swift  rotation, 
and  the  early  microscopic  observers  supposed  such  to  be  actually 
the  kind  of  movement  with  which  the  organs  in  question  were 
endowed,  though  by  what  kind  of  mechanism  living  wheels  could 
really  spin  round,  and  yet  preserve  their  connexion  with  the 
animal,  they  could  not  conceive.  Better  instruments,  however, 
and  closer  observation,  have  solved  the  difficulty.  Instead  .of 
being  real  revolutions  of  wheels,  it  is  now  clearly  established  that 
the  apparent  rotations  are  merely  an  optical  illusion,  similar  to 
that  by  which,  when  the  tide  is  rolling  in  upon  the  beach,  the 
waves  appear  to  the  eye  to  move  rapidly  forward,  while,  as  is 
well  known,  they  merely  rise  and  fall  in  constant  succession.  The 

*  Rota,  clicked;  fero,  I  carry. 


'74 


ROTIfERA. 


true  explanation  of  the  once  mysterious  phenomenon  is  as  fol- 
lows :  Examined  under  high  powers,  the  cilia  have  the  appear- 
ance of  moving  in  waves,  in  the  production  of  which  from  a  dozen 
to  twenty  cilia  are  concerned,  the  highest  point  of  each  wave 
being  formed  by  a  cilium  extended  to  its  full  length,  while  the 
lowest  point  between  every  two  waves  is  occupied  by  one  folded 
down  upon  itself,  the  intervening  space  being  filled  by  others  in 
every  intermediate  degree  of  extension.  As  the  continuance  of 
each  cilium  in  any  one  of  these  positions  is  of  the  shortest  possible 


FIG.  176. — SKELETON   u  HEEL-BEARER. 

duration,  and  each  takes  up  in  regular  succession  the  action  of 
the  adjoining  one,  that  cilium  which,  by  being  completely  folded 
up,  formed  the  lowest  point  between  any  two  waves,  in  its  turn, 
by  its  complete  extension  forms  the  highest  point  of  the  next 
wave,  and  thus,  while  the  cilia  are  alternately  bending  and  un- 
bending themselves,  the  waves  appear  to  travel  onward,  while  the 
cilia  never  change  their  position. 

The  ciliary  apparatus  is  evidently  under  the  control  of  the 
animal.  The  whole  fringe  of  cilia  may  be  instantly  set  in  motion, 
and  as  instantly  stopped,  or  their  action  regulated  to  any  degree 
of  rapidity. 

A  very  slight  examination  of  these  minute  creatures  with  the 
microscope  will  show  that  the  ciliary  movement  answers  a  double 
purpose.  If  the  little  Rotifer  attaches  itself  to  some  fixed  object 
by  means  of  its  forcipated  tail,  as  represented  in  the  figure  (Fig. 


WHEEL-ANIMALC  ULES. 


)i  the  cilia,  by  producing  currents  in  the  water  all  converging 
towards  the  mouth,  insure  an  abundant  supply  of  food,  by  hurry- 
ing down  the  gaping  throat  whatever  minute  aliment  may  be 
brought  within  range  of  the  vortex  thus  caused  ;  or,  on  the  other 
hand,  if  the  animal  disengages  itself  from  the  substance  to  which 
it  is  held  by  its  curious  anchor,  the  wheels,  acting  upon  the  prin- 
ciple of  paddle-wheels,  carry  it  rapidly  along  with  an  equable 
gliding  movement. 


T,  2.   Brachionns. 


FlG.    177.—  ROTIFERA. 


3.    Sleplianoceros. 


Some  of  these  little  creatures  are  enclosed  in  a  transparent 
shell,  often  variously  armed  with  spines  at  one  or  both  extremi- 
ties, but  others  are  not  so  enclosed. 

The  eggs  of  the  Rotifera  form  beautiful  objects  for  micro- 
scopic study.  They  are  covered  with  a  transparent  shell,  through 
which  the  parts  of  the  embyro,  as  they  develope  themselves, 
gradually  become  distinctly  apparent,  until  at  length  the  cilia 
are  seen  performing  their  mimic  rotation,  though  as  yet  the  im- 
prisoning shell  has  not  been  broken.  At  last,  by  the  action  of 
these  organs,  which  every  moment  becomes  more  energetic,  the 
transparent  membrane  is  ruptured,  and  the  little  creature  bursts 
forth,  eager  to  enter  upon  its  new  existence,  and  already  possess- 
ing the  form  of  its  parent.  The  time  from  the  exclusion  of  the 
egg  to  the  hatching  is  commonly  about  twelve  hours.  Ehrenberg 
watched  an  individual  through  eighteen  successive  days :  it  was 
full  grown  when  he  first  observed  it,  and  it  did  not  die  of  old  age 
at  last.  Such  an  individual  he  found  to  be  capable  of  producing 
four  eggs  every  twenty-four  hours,  the  progeny  derived  from  which 
grow  to  maturity  and  exclude  their  fertile  ova  in  the  same  period, 


i76 


ROTIFERA. 


a  single  Rotifer  thus  producing  in  ten  days  forty  eggs,  developed 
with  the  rapidity  thus  stated  :  this  rate,  raised  to  the  tenth  power, 
gives  one  million  of  individuals  derived  from  one  parent,  on  the 
eleventh  day  four  millions,  on  the  twelfth  day  sixteen  millions, 
and  so  on.  Well  may  our  ponds  and  ditches  swarm  with  their 
multitudes,  and  countless  creatures  dependent'  on  such  a  supply 
rejoice  at  the  abundance  of  food  thus  supplied  to  them. 


But  the  Rotifera  are  not  only  thus  numerous  in  large  collections 
of  fresh  water  ;  they  are  met  with  in  cart-ruts,  in  gutters,  in  rain- 
spouts,  and  in  the  depressions  and  corners  of  leads  on  the  roofs 
of  houses.  The  fact  that  the  water  in  these  situations  is  fre- 
quently dried  up,  does  not  at  all  prevent  their  presence.  The 
sand  in  such  places  sometimes  contains  millions  of  them,  dried 
to  dust  of  reddish-brown  hue ;  and  if  a  little  of  this  dust  be  put 
into  clear  water,  they  will  in  a  short  time  revive,  and  swim  about 
as  actively  as  if  they  had  never  been  dried.  One  species,  the 
Rotifer  redivivs,  has  derived  its  name  from  this  circumstance. 
Specimens  have  been  kept  in  a  dry  state  for  four  years,  and  then 
resuscitated  on  being  moistened.  From  this  fact  it  becomes  easy 
to  explain  how  collections  of  water,  however  free  from  such  in- 
habitants at  first,  become  filled  to  swarming  with  Infusory  and 
Rotiferous  forms  of  life.  When  the  once  thickly-tenanted  pool, 
says  Professor  Owen,  is  dried  up,  the  inconceivably  minute  ova 
and  equally  imperceptible  dried  bodies  of  these  creatures  will  be 
raised  as  dust  by  the  first  puff  of  wind,  and  diffused  through  the 
atmosphere ;  there  they  may  long  remain  suspended,  forming, 
perhaps,  their  share  of  the  particles  which  we  see  flickering  in 
the  sunbeam,  ready  to  fall  into  any  collection  of  water,  beaten 


BARNACLES.  177 


down  by  every  summer  shower,  and,  by  virtue  of  their  tenacity 
of  vitality,  ready  to  start  to  life  wherever  they  may  find  the  re- 
quisite conditions  for  their  existence. 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  conceive  of  the  outburst  of  fresh  life 
caused  by  the  return  of  moisture  in  tropical  climates.  Immediately 
prior  to  the  setting  in  of  the  annual  rains,  the  swamps,  pools, 
water-courses,  and  even  the  majestic  rivers  themselves,  are  well 
near  dried  up.  The  surface  of  the  soil  is  parched  into  a  layer  of 
impalpable  dust,  and  the  remnants  of  all  the  minute  tribes  of 
plants  are  carried  to  and  fro  by  the  slightest  winds,  amongst  the 
dusty  particles  to  which  they  themselves  largely  contribute.  In 
them  vitality  is  maintained  under  the  minimum  of  the  conditions 
essential  to  its  continuance,  and  without  the  interposition  of  this 
phase  of  their  existence  these  organisms  would  soon  become 
extinct.  For  upwards  of  two  months  the  rains  continue  to  fall 
incessantly.  The  whole  country  is  flooded,  and  the  rivers  expand 
to  the  proportions  of  inland  seas.  But  no  sooner  have  the  rains 
and  inundations  subsided  than  the  mud-laden  pools  clear  down, 
the  magic  influences  of  light  and  heat  are  permitted  to  operate, 
and  in  an  inconceivably  brief  period  the  surface,  the  bottom,  and 
the  body  of  the  waters  absolutely  teem  with  the  crowded  masses 
of  animal  and  of  vegetable  life,  amidst  which  the  wheel-animal- 
cules revel  in  all  the  luxury  of  abundance. 

CIRRIPEDS.    ORDER  CIRRIPEDIA.* 

Every  visitor  to  the  sea-shore  has  doubtless  observed  the  rocks 
and  stones,  the  timbers  of  the  jetties,  or  any  objects  that  have 
been  long  immersed  in  the  sea,  thickly  encrusted  with  shells  of 
remarkable  construction,  usually  known  by  the  name  of  Barnacles 
or  Acorn-Skclls.  On  placing  a  stone  or  shell  thus  encrusted  (taken 
fresh  from  the  sea,  so  that  the  animals  may  be  in  full  life  and 
vigour)  in  a  glass  of  clear  sea-water,  and  watching  them  atten- 
tively, the  acorn-shells  upon  its  surface  will  be  seen  to  open,  and 
presently  a  beautiful  feather-like  apparatus  will  be  protruded, 
and  again  withdrawn.  After  a  few  seconds  this  movement  will 
be  repeated,  and  again  and  again  the  feathery  structures  will  be 
put  forth  and  retracted  with  such  grace,  regularity,  and  precision, 
that  they  present  an  appearance  exquisitely  beautiful.  These 
are  the  arms  or  cirri  of  the  contained  animal.  When  fully  ex- 

*  Cirrus,  a  lock  of  hair :  pes,  afoot. 

12 


i7S 


CIRRIPEDS. 


panded,  it  will  be  seen  that  their  plumose  and  flexible  stems  form 
a  most  wonderful  prehensile  apparatus,  admirably  adapted  to 
entangle  any  nutritious  particles  of  minute  living  creatures  that 
may  happen  to  be  present  in  the  circumscribed  space  over  which 
•this  singular  casting-net  is  thrown,  and  drag  them  down  into  the 
vicinity  of  the  mouth,  where,  being  seized  by  the  jaws,  they  are 
crushed  and  appropriated  as  food.  No  sense  but  that  of  touch 
is  required  for  the  success  of  this  singular  mode  of  fishing,  and 
the  delicacy  with  which  the  arms  perceive  the  slighest  contact  of 
foreign  bodies  shows  that  they  are  eminently  sensitive. 


FIG.  179.— CIRRI  OF  BARNACLE. 


FIG.  iSo.— YOUNG  OF  BARNACLE. 


It  is  from  these  remarkably-constructed  limbs  or  cirri  that 
the  Order  derives  its  name.  Although  in  their  adult  state  the 
Cirripeds  are  fixed  and  stationary,  and  enclosed  in  dense  and 
strong  shells,  the  newly-hatched  young  present  a  very  different 
shape,  and,  strange  to  say,  are  furnished  with  limbs  calculated 
to  enable  them  to  swim  freely  about,  under  the  appearance  of 
Entomostracous  Crustaceans;  and  it  is  only  after  undergoing 
several  changes  of  form,  that  they  lose  their  wandering .  habits! 
The  young  Cirripeds,  on  emerging  from  the  eggs,  are  very  different 
in  structure  from  their  parents.  They  possess  locomotive  organs 
consisting  of  a  large  pair  of  limbs  provided  with  a  sucker  and 
hooks,  adapted  for  mooring  themselves  at  pleasure  to  any  foreign 
object;  and  also  of  six  pairs  of  swimming-legs,  that  act  in  concert 
like  oars.  Besides  these  they  have  a  tail  bent  under  their  body, 


ACORN-SHELLS.  179 

consisting  of  two  joints  and  terminated  by  four  bristles,  which 
constitutes  an  additional  apparatus  of  propulsion.  Thus  endowed, 
they  swim  along  in  a  series  of  bounds,  the  oars  and  tail  giving, 
in  measured  time,  successive  impulses.  They  have,  moreover, 
large  lateral  eyes,  and  the  body  is  covered  with  a  sort  of  shell,  such 
as  we  see  in  the  early  state  of  certain  Entomostracans  (Cyclops), 
which  they  closely  resemble.  Mr.  J.  V.  Thompson,  believing  the 
little  creatures  so  constructed  to  be  larvae  of  some  Crustaceans, 
kept  some  of  them  in  a  glass  vessel,  covered  to  such  a  depth  with 
sea-water,  that  they  could  be  examined  at  any  time  by  means  of  a 
common  magnifying-glass,  and,  to  his  great  surprise,  in  the  course 
of  a  few  days  they  threw  oft'  their  larva  skins,  and  became  firmly 
adherent  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  changed  into  young  Bar- 
nacles, such  as  are  usually  seen  in  the  spring-time  intermixed 
with  grown  specimens  on  rocks  and  stones.  In  this  stage  the 
valves  of  the  shell  and  of  the  operculum  were  visible,  as  well  as 
the  movements  of  the  arms  of  the  contained  animal,  although 
these  last  were  not  yet  completely  developed.  The  eyes,  also, 
were  still  perceptible,  but  these  gradually  disappear  with  the  in- 
creasing opacity  of  the  shell,  and  the  animal  becomes  blind  for 
the  remainder  of  its  life.  Thus,  then,  a  creature  originally  free, 
capable  of  swimming  about,  and  furnished  with  distinct  organs  of 
sight,  becomes  permanently  and  immoveably  fixed,  and  its  optical 
apparatus  obliterated. 

The  Cirripeds  are  divided  into  two  families. 

The  Barnacles  (Lepas]  (Fig.  181)  are  always  found  attached  to  some 
foreign  substance  by  a  long  flexible  peduncle,  -which  possesses  great  power  of 
contraction.  Each  valve  of  their  shell  is  usually  composed  of  two  triangular 
pieces,  and  is  closed  at  the  back  by  an  elongated  plate,  so  that  the  whole  shell 
consists  of  five  pieces.  They  are  very  widely  disseminated,  and  adhere  to  sub- 
marine bodies  in  considerable  numbers.  They  are  found  not  only  on  floating 
wood,  the  hulls  of  ships,  bottles,  and  other  articles  floating  about,  but  on  shells, 
on  turtles,  whales,  and  even  sea-snakes.  Large  logs  of  timber  are  sometimes 
completely  covered  with  them,  compacted  in  close  array,  writhing  and  twisting 
about  like  the  serpents  on  Medusa's  head,  and  presenting  a  most  remarkable 
spectacle. 

The  Acorn-Shells  (Balani]  (Fig.  182)  in  their  general  structure  and 
habits  resemble  the  barnacles  ;  they  have,  however,  no  pedicle  or  footstalk, 
but  are  sessile— that  is,  are  fixed  immediately  on  the  substances  upon  which 
they  attach  themselves,  or  in  which  they  are  more  or  less  embedded.  The 
common  species  is  often  found  in  great  numbers  covering  the  shells  of  mussels 
and  oysters,  and  may  thus  be  easily  procured  for  examination.  Taking  one 
of  these  as  an  example  of  the  group,  we  find  them  to  consist  of  a  shelly  cone 
composed  of  various  pieces,  accurately  fitted  together,  and  capable  of  enlarging 
with  the  growth  of  the  animal.  A  thin  calcareous  base  or  closing  plate  fixes 
the  cone  to  the  substance  on  which  it  rests,  while  its  apex  presents  four  pieces, 


i8o 


MOLL  US  KS. 


that  form  an  operculum  or  valvular  lid,  so  disposed  as  to  shut  up  the  aperture 
when  the  animal  retires,  into  its  shell,  but  easily  opened  for  the  protrusion  of 
the  cirri.  The  acorn-shells  are  widely  spread :  groups  of  different  species  are 
found  covering  rocks,  floating  wood,  shells  of  various  kinds,  or  even  the  backs 
of  crabs  and  lobsters— any  objects,  in  short,  which  will  afford  them  a  secure 
resting-place, 


FIG.  182. -ACORN-SHELLS  ON  THK 
SHELL  OF  A  WHELK. 


FIG.  iSi.—  BARNACLES. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
THIRD  DIVISION  OF  INVERTEBRATE  ANIMALS. 

MOLLUSKS, 

WIDELY  different  in  their  appearance  from  the  Articulata 
described  in  the  last  chapters  are  the  creatures  that  next 
present  themselves.  Instead  of  possessing  an  external  skeleton, 
divided  into  numerous  segments  and  furnished  with  jointed  limbs, 
the  Mollusks  are  either  entirely  naked  and  defenceless,  or  else 
have  their  bodies  protected  by  shells,  in  which  they  frequently 
reside,  and  hence  are  generally  known  by  the  name  of  "  shell- fish." 
Formerly  the  animals  which  formed  and  inhabited  these  shells 
were  little  known,  and  consequently  little  attended  to.  The  shells 
alone  attracted  the  attention  of  the  student,  and  hence  the  study 
of  this  branch  of  natural  science  received  the  name  of  Conchology,* 
and  the  appellation  is  still  in  general  use.  At  the  present  day, 

,  conche,  a  shell ;  Ao-yos,  logos,  a  discourse. 


MOLLUSKS.  i  Si 


however,  the  animals  receive  an  equal  share  of  attention  from  the 
naturalist ;  and  the  arrangement  of  their  hard  persistent  coverings 
depends  almost  entirely  upon  the  structure  of  the  animals  which 
formed  them. 

Mollusks  may  be  defined  as  soft  and  fleshy  animals,  devoid  of 
bones  or  any  internal  skeleton,  and  not  divided,  like  insects  and 
worms,  into  rings  or  articulations.  Their  body  is  covered  with 
an  irritable  and  contractile  skin,  which  is  moistened  by  a  viscid 
liquor  that  exudes  from  it,  and  which  is  in  very  many  instances 
ample  enough  to  form  folds  that  envelope  the  creature  more  or 
less  completely  as  in  a  mantle  or  cloak.  In  some  cases  this  skin 
is  naked,  and  then  the  mantle  is  thick  and  viscous ;  in  the  greater 
number,  however,  it  is  protected  by  a  hard  covering,  called  a  shell, 
beneath  which  the  mantle  is  thin  and  transparent.  Their  most 
essential  character,  however,  lies  in  their  nervous  system,  which 
consists  of  a  certain  number  of  nervous  centres  or  ganglia,  from 
which  the  nerves  are  given  off  to  different  parts  of  the  body. 
These  ganglia  are  principally  concentrated  around  the  entrance 
to  the  alimentary  canal,  and  form  a  collar  or  ring,  that  surrounds 
the  oesophagus  or  throat,  and  is  connected  with  other  ganglia, 
disposed  without  symmetry  among  the  viscera,  or  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  organs  of  locomotion.  From  this  unsymmetrical  con- 
dition of  the  nervous  centres,  the  whole  class  has  received  the 
name  of  Heterogangliata.*  Many  of  the  Mollusks  are  terrestrial, 
and  breathe  the  air ;  but  the  greater  part  live  entirely  in  the 
water,  from  which  they  derive  their  nutriment,  and  in  which  they 
breathe  by  the  aid  of  branchiae,  or  gill-like  appendages.  Those 
which  are  terrestrial  are  seen  in  our  gardens,  pastures,  and  plan- 
tations, on  the  trunks  and  stems  of  trees,  and  in  moist  and  shady 
places ;  while  multitudes  of  the  aquatic  species  are  to  be  found 
in  the  seas  both  of  tropical  and  arctic  regions,  as  well  as  in  those 
which  environ  our  own  islands.  Others  dwell  in  lakes  and  ponds 
of  fresh  water,  or  live  at  the  bottom  of  rapid  streams  ;  some  arc 
amphibious.  In  short,  they  may  be  said  to  be  universally  distri- 
buted'wherever  circumstances  permit  of  their  existence. 

The  number  of  species  already  in  museums  probably  reaches 
8,000  or  10,000.  There  are  cabinets  of  marine  shells,  bivalve  and 
univalve,  which  contain  from  5,000  or  6,OOO,  and  collections  of 
land  and  fluviatile  shells  which  count  as  many  as  2,000.  The 
total  number  of  Mollusks,  therefore,  probably  exceeds  15,000 
species.  The  Mollusks  can  only  be  studied  properly  in  a  living 

*  ere/oos,  heteros,  dissimilar ;  ydvy\ioi>,  ganglion,  a  ganglion. 


1 82  MOLLUSKS. 


state  ;  it  is  only  then  that  they  develope  their  form  and  true 
appearance  by  unfolding  their  different  organs,  which  in  the  dead 
animal  are  always  shrunk,  retracted,  collapsed,  or  disfigured  to 
such  an  extent  that  there  is  no  possibility  of  delineating  them, 
insomuch,  indeed,  that  the  same  individual  has  again  and  again 
been  described  under  various  names  as  belonging  to  different 
species. 

When  we  call  to  mind  the  incalculable  numbers  of  these  crea- 
tures that  crawl  on  the  bottom  or  swim  in  the  bosom  of  the  ocean, 
and  that  everywhere  abound  on  dry  land,  it  is  evident  that  their 
.importance  in  creation  must  be  great  beyond  human  speculation. 
They  are  the  frequent  victims  of  the  indiscriminating  and  almost 
insatiable  appetite  of  fishes,  and  from  the  stomach  of  a  cod  or  a 
flounder  many  a  shell  may  be  procured  not  otherwise  so  easily 
obtainable.  They  constitute  the  principal  food  of  innumerable 
birds  and  reptiles.  They  furnish  materials  valuable  in  the  arts, 
and  many  of  them  are  eaten  by  mankind. 

Various  are  the  forms  and  widely  different  the  relative  perfec- 
tion of  the  Mollusks  as  regards  their  endowments  and  capabilities : 
some,  as  the  Polyzoa,  fixed  to  the  surface  of  foreign  bodies,  entirely 
deprived  of  organs  connected  with  the  higher  senses,  and  unable 
to  change  their  position,  are  content  to  protrude  at  intervals  their 
ciliated  arms,  and  thus  entrap  such  passing  prey  as  suits  their 
appetite.  Others,  the  Brachiopoda,  equally  incapable  of  loco- 
motion, but  furnished  with  arms  of  different  construction,  catch 
their  food  by  an  equally  curious  mechanism. 

The  Tunicata,  enclosed  in  leather-like  bags,  firmly  rooted  to 
the  rocks  or  aggregated  into  singular  compound  masses,  adorn 
the  beach  with  their  kaleidoscope  patterns,  or  float  through  the 
ocean  at  the  mercy  of  the  waves.  The  Conchifera  inhabit  bivalve 
shells  ;  while  the  Gasteropod  Orders,  likewise  defended  in  most 
instances  by  a  shelly  covering,  creep  about  by  means  of  a  fleshy 
disk,  and  thus  being  endowed  with  a  locomotive  apparatus,  exhibit 
senses  of  proportionate  perfection.  The  Pteropoda  swim  in 
myriads  through  the  sea,  supported  by  two  fleshy  fins  ;  while  the 
Cephalopoda,  the  most  highly  organized  of  this  large  division  of 
animated  nature,  furnished  with  both  eyes  and  ears,  and  armed 
with  formidable  means  of  destroying  prey,  become  tyrants  of  the 
deep,  and  gradually  conduct  us  to  the  most  exalted  type  of 
animal  existence.  These  different  sections,  which  constitute  so 
many  distinct  classes  into  which  the  Mollusks  have  been  divided 
by  zoologists,  may  be  arranged  in  accordance  with  the  following 
tabular  view  : 


MOLLUSKS. 


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1 84 


POLYZOA. 


'CHAPTER   XV. 

FIRST  CLASS  OF  MOLLUSKS. 
POLYZOA.  * 

THOSE  who  have  amused  themselves  with  collecting  sea- 
weeds upon  the  shore,  may  have  often  observed  their  stems 
to  be  covered  in  patches  with  a  delicate  film  so  thin  as  not  to  hide 
the  form  of  the  surface  on  which  it  is  spread,  yet  when  closely 
examined  with  a  magnifying-glass  discovered  to  consist  of  a  vast 
number  of  symmetrical  cells,  placed  close  to  each  other,  some- 
what like  those  of  a  honeycomb.  Or  the  inquisitive  collector  may 
have  found  a  substance  very  similar  to  the  above  in  its  texture 
and  appearance,  but  floating  loosely  in  the  water,  and  itself  taking 
the  form  of  a  branched  and  leaf-like  sea-weed,  presenting  on  both 
sides  of  its  flattened  expansion  the  same  honeycomb  arrangement 
of  tiny  cells. 


:mim^m^m, 


FIG.  183.— FLUSTRA  FOLIACEA. 

Such  are  the  Sea-Mats  (Fins fro)  (Fig.  183).  If  we  take  a  portion  of  one 
of  these  very  common  productions,  and  bring  it  under  a  lens  of  high  magnify- 
ing power,  its  entire  surface  is  found  to  be  made  up  on  both  sides  by  an  assem- 
blage of  cells  of  a  somewhat  horny  texture,  the  margins  of  which  are  beset 

*  TroXiJs,  polys,  many ;  $wa,  zoa,  animals  ;  so  called  because  they  are  generally  asso- 
ciated in  considerable  numbers. 


SEA-MOSS. 


FIG.  184.— CELLS  OF  FLCSTRA  (Magnified). 


with  spines  arranged  with 
great  regularity.  Should  the 
specimen  happen  to  be  alive, 
it  will  be  seen,  on  placing  it 
in  a  glass  of  sea-water,  that 
every  cell  is  inhabited  by  a 
little  hungry,  active  animal, 
Polype-like  in  its  form,  but 
displaying  a  much  more  com- 
plicated structure.  Around 
its  mouth  are  set  numerous 
long  tentacles  ;  but  these  are 
not  mere  smooth  filaments,  or 
petal-like  appendages,  like 
those  of  the  true  Polypes  de- 
scribed in  a  former  chapter, 
but  they  are  furnished  with 
innumerable  cilia  arranged  in 
rows,  which  being  set  in  rapid 
vibration  at  the  will  of  the 
animal,  produce  strong  and 
constant  currents  in  the  sur- 
rounding water,  all  of  which 
converge  towards  the  central 
mouth.  By  this  wonderful 
provision  two  ends  are  ob- 
tained :  the  particles  of  water  are  incessantly  renewed  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
spiration, and  by  the  same  means  every  minute  substance,  animal  or  vegetable, 
that  happens  to  be  swimming  in  the  neighbourhood,  is  dragged  by  the  cease- 
less whirlpool  into  the -midst  of  the  ciliated  tentacles,  and  thus  brought  to  the 
mouth,  where  such  as  are  fit  for  prey  are  seized  and  swallowed. 

On  the  very  Flustra  we  have  been  describing  there  often  exists 
an  example  of  a  parasitic  production,  belonging  to  the  same  class, 
the  structure  of  which  is  still  more  marvellous. 

The  Sea-Moss  (Bowtrfattkia  densa)  forms  beneath  the  microscope  an  object  of 
matchless  beauty.  This  little  parasitic  Polyzoon  (Fig.  185)  consists  of  innumerable 
Polype-like  creatures,  each  inhabiting  an  extremely  delicate  transparent  tube ;  clusters 
of  these  glassy  cells  arise  from  a  creeping  stem,  common  to  the  whole  group.  Examined 
with  a  microscope,  the  tubes  m  which  these  minute  animals  live  are  found  to  consist  of 
three  portions.  The  lower  part  is  stiff  and  horny,  though  quite  pellucid ;  towards  its 
upper  third,  however,  it  becomes  flexible,  and  at  length  terminates  in  a  marginal  row 
of  delicate  horny  filaments,  united  by  a  web  or  membrane  of  exquisite  tenuity.  Above 
these  filaments  the  ciliated  tentacles  expand,  and  form  a  sort  of  funnel,  of  which  the 
mouth  is  the  apex  or  centre.  Though  the  tentacles  are  commonly  stiff  and  motionless 
when  expanded,  they  are  highly  sensitive,  and  on  the  least  alarm  are  drawn  within  the 
tube,  the  mouth  of  which  is  "then  closed  by  the  beautiful  mechanism  above  described, 
the  horny  filaments  that  surround  it  closing  over  them,  as  represented  in  the  engraving. 

Many  species  of  these  marine  Polyzoa  are  furnished  with 
numerous  organs  appended  to  the  exterior  of  the  cells,  which  are 
of  a  most  remarkable  and  inexplicable  character.  These  organs 


i86 


POLYZOA. 


are  called  Avicularia*  and  resemble  vultures'  heads  :  not  a  cell 
is  without  its  bird's  head,  and  all  are  employed  in  see-sawing, 
snapping,  and  opening  their  jaws  with  the  most  amusing  activity. 
Nay,  strange  to  say,  even  in  specimens  the  animals  of  which  are 

all  dead,  these  "  birds' 
heads "  are  some- 
times equally  active. 
If  we  take  a  Poly- 
zoon  of  this  descrip- 
tion, and  drop  it, 
while  in  full  activity, 
into  a  narrow  glass 
cell,  with  parallel 
sides,  filled  with  the 
purest  sea-water,  and 
here  examine  it  with 
the  microscope,  the 
Polype-like  crea- 
tures protruding 
their  crystal  stars  of 
tentacles,  the  birds' 
heads  nodding  to 
and  fro  their  bald 
pates,  and  opening 

and  shutting  their  frightfully  gaping  jaws  like  snapping  turtles, 
form  altogether  a  scene  quite  indescribable. 

More  than  one  observer  has  noticed  the  seizure  of  small  roving 
animals  by  the  pincer-like  beaks  of  the  Aviculariae ;  and  hence 
the  conclusion  is  pretty  general  that  they  are  in  some  way  con- 
nected with  the  procuration  of  food  ;  seeing,  however,  that  these 
organs  have  no  power  of  passing  the  prey  thus  seized  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Polyzoon,  and,  also,  that  this  latter  is  situated  at 
the  bottom  of  a  funnel  of  ciliated  tentacula,  and  calculated  only 
to  receive  such  minute  prey  as  is  drawn  within  the  ciliary  vortex, 
it  is  difficult  to  see  how  this  can  be  effected.  Mr.  Gosse  has 
suggested  a  very  ingenious  explanation.  The  habit  of  seizing  a 
passing  animal,  and  holding  it  with  a  tenacious  grasp  until  it  dies, 
may  be  a  means  of  attracting  a  supply  of  food  into  the  vicinity. 
The  presence  of  decomposing  animal  matter  in  water  invariably 
congregates  crowds  of  Infusorial  animalcules,  which  breed  with 


FlG.     185.  —  BOWERBANKIA. 


Avicula,  a  little  bird. 


AVICULARIA. 


187 


astonishing  rapidity,  so  as  to  form  a  cloud  of  living  atoms  around 
the  decaying  body,  quite  visible  in  the  aggregate  to  the  unassisted 
eye.  An  animal  thus  seized,  therefore,  becomes  a  centre  to  a 
crowd  of  Infusoria,  multitudes  of  which  must  be  constantly  drawn 
into  the  tentacular  vortex  and  swallowed  by  the  Polyzoon. 


I' 1C.  187. — PH'MATELLA. 


FlG. 


186. — CELLULARIA  AVICULARIA  :  a,  natural  size  :  b  and  c.  portions  much  magnified,  showing 
the  "  birds'  heads;"  d,  a  single  Polyzoon  in  its  cell. 


Besides  the  marine  genera  above  described,  there  are  many 
forms  of  animals,  belonging  to  this  class,  that  abound  in  our 
fresh  waters.  These  Fluviatile  Polyzoa  are  to  be  met  with  in 
ponds  and  streams,  adherent  to  any  foreign  bodies  that  may  be 
casually  submerged.  Thus,  they  are  found  attached  to  stones  at 
the  bottom  of  the  water,  upon  shells,  upon  leaves — more  espe- 


i88  TUNICARIES. 


cially  those  of  the  water-lily  and  the  bistort — upon  floating  wood, 
and  upon  the  stems  of  various  plants.  In  order  to  examine  these 
beautiful  organisms  in  a  living  state,  it  is  only  necessary  to  allow 
the  leaf,  or  other  substance  to  which  they  are  attached,  to  remain 
for  some  little  time  undisturbed  in  a  glass  of  clear  water,  when 
they  will  be  soon  seen,  spreading  forth  their  beautiful  tentacula, 
as  they  protrude  from  their  delicate  cells  ;  and  by  frequently 
changing  the  water  they  may  be  kept  alive  for  months,  affording 
objects  of  continual  interest  for  microscopical  observation. 

When  thus  examined,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  fresh-water  Polypes 
differ  from  the  marine  species  in  the  arrangement  of  their  ten- 
tacula. In  the  latter,  as  we  have  seen  in  Bbwerbankia  (Fig.  185), 
the  tentacles  are  disposed  in  an  uninterrupted  series  around  the 
mouth,  so  as  to  resemble  a  funnel,  whereas  in  the  fresh-water 
species  they  are  arranged  in  a  crescentic  or  horse-shoe-shaped 
series  (Fig.  187). 


CHAPTER   XVI. 

SECOND  CLASS  OF  MOLLUSKS. 
TUNICARIES.     TUNICATA.* 

r  I  ^HE  name  of  this  class  is  derived  from  the  circumstance  that 
JL      the  animals  belonging  to  it  are  enclosed  in  a  tough,  gristly 

or  leathery  bag,  the  lower  extremity  of  which  is  generally  affixed 

to    some    extraneous     substance, 
/•""•'v-x  such  as  a  stone,  a  shell,  or  a  piece 

of  wood  ;  while  above  it  is  pro- 
vided with  two  orifices,  one  appro- 
priated to  the  entrance,  the  other 
to  the  discharge  of  the  surround- 
ing water. 

Various  are  the  forms  under 
which  these  creatures  present 
themselves  to  the  naturalist ;  from 
among  which  we  will  select  one  of 
the  simplest  for  special  descrip- 

FIG.  1 38.—  EXTERNAL  FORM  OF  ASCIDIA.        ,  • 

tion. 


*  Tunica,  a  coat:  so  called  because  they  are  enclosed  in  a  leathery-looking  tit) 


ASCIDIANS. 


189 


The  Ascidians  (Ascidid)  *  (Fig.  1 88}  are  met  with  everywhere  in  abundance 
on  the  shores  of  the  ocean,  but  very  generally  are  passed  unnoticed  by  the  casual 
observer.  In  their  natural  condition  they  are  found  fixed  to  the  surfaces  of 
rocks,  sea-weed,  or  other  submarine  bodies,  and  frequently  glued  together  in 
bunches.  Incapable  of  locomotion,  and  deprived  of  any  external  organs  of 
sense,  few  animals  seem  more  helpless  and  apathetic  than  these  apparently 


FIG.  183.— DIAGRAM  OF  STRUCTURE  OF  ASCIDIAX, 

shapeless  beings  ;  and  the  anatomist  is  surprised  to  find  how  remarkably  the 
beauty  and  delicacy  of  their  internal  structure  contrast  with  their  rude  external 
appearance.  When  we  consider  the  immoveable  condition  of  an  Ascidian, 
and  its  absolute  want  of  any  prehensile  instruments  with  which  to  seize  prey, 
it  is  by  no  means  easy  to  conjecture  how  it  is  able  to  subsist ;  neither  is  the 
structure  of  the  mouth  itself,  nor  the  strange  position  that  it  occupies,  at  all  cal- 
culated to  explain  this  part  of  their  economy.  Their  mouth  is,  in  fact,  situated 
at  the  bottom  of  a  wide  bag,  into  which  the  surrounding  water  is  freely  ad- 
mitted. The  internal  surface  of  the  bag  is  densely  covered  with  cilia,  which 
in  the  living  animal  are  constantly  in  a  state  of  rapid  vibration,  hurrying  along 
whatever  substances,  alive  or  dead,  may  be  brought  into  the  body  with  the 
external  element,  and  pouring  them  into  the  mouth,  when  they  are  immedi- 
ately swallowed.  Many  forms  of  Tunicated  Mollusca  are  met  with  in  the 
seas  of  tropical  latitudes,  which,  although  allied  to  the  Ascidians  in  the  main 
points  of  their  economy,  differ  from  them  in  some  points  that  require  notice. 
The  Salpians  (Salpce]  are  some  of  them  so  transparent  that  their  presence 
in  even  a  small  quantity  of  sea- water  is  not  easily  detected.  Their  body  is 

*  dcrKos,  askos,  a  leather  bag. 


1 90  TUNIC  AT  A. 


oblong,  and  open  at  both  ends,  tHe  posterior  opening  being  very  wide,  and 
furnished  with  a  valve  so  disposed  that  water  is  freely  admitted,  but  cannot 
again  be  expelled  through  the  same  channel ;  so  that,  being  forced,  by  the 
contraction  of  the  body,  in  powerful  gushes  from  the  opposite  end,  it  not  only 
supplies  materials  for  food  and  respiration,  but  impels  the  delicate  animal 
through  the  water  in  a  backward  direction. 


FIG.  190. — SALPA  MAXIMA. 

A  very  remarkable  feature  in  the  history  of  these  creatures  is 
that  many  species  are  found  swimming  together  adhering  to  each 
other  in  long  chains,  and,  what  is  still  more  strange,  such  aggre- 
gated animals  give  birth  to  solitary  individuals  of  different  appear- 
ance, which,  in  their  turn,  produce  concatenated  forms ;  so  that  a 
young  Salpian  does  not  at  all  resemble  its  mother  or  its  daughter, 
but  is  the  counterpart  of  its  grandmother  or  its  granddaughter. 

The  prodigious  multitudes  in  which  these  creatures  exist  may 
be  gathered  from  the  following  extract  : 

"  Between  the  Cape  and  St.  Helena,  for  many  degrees,  and  in  bright,  breezy  weather, 
the  ship  passed  through  vast  layers  of  sea-water  so  thronged  with  Salpse  (S.  mucronata} 
as  to  present  the  consistence  of  jelly.  These  layers  extended  for  several  miles  in  length ; 
what  their  vertical  limits  were  it  was  impossible  to  discover.  They  appeared  to  extend 
deep.  Each  of  these  Salpas  measured  about  half  an  inch  in  length  ;  but  so  close  was 
their  aggregation,  that  by  a  sudden  plunge  of  an  iron-rimmed  tow-net,  half  the  cubic 
contents,  from  which  the  water  had  drained,  consisted  of  nothing  but  one  gelatinous 
pulp. " — ' '  Voyage  of  Sir  James  Ross." 

Other  Ascidians  are  aggregated  together  into  still  more  com- 
plex assemblages. 


The  Pyrosoma  (Pyrosoma)*  for  example,  is  of  this  description.  Its  body 
is  made  up  of  multitudes  of  Ascidians  so  joined  together  as  to  form  a  hollow 
cylinder,  open  at  one  end,  but  closed  at  the  other.  The  cylinder  thus  con- 
structed is  rowed  about  in  the  sea  by  the  combined  contractions  and  expan- 
sions of  all  the  animals  composing  it ;  and,  as  it  moves  along,  emits  at  night 
a  most  brilliant  phosphorescent  light,  whence  the  derivation  of  the  name  by 
which  it  is  distinguished.  '  Nothing  can  exceed  the  dazzling  splendour  and 


*  irvp,  pyr,jire;  au/j-a,  soma,  a  body. 


PYROSOMA. 


brilliant  colours  exhibited  by  these  floating  cylinders — colours  passing  rapidly 
from  a  dazzling  red  to  saffron,  to  orange,  to  green,  and  to  azure,  anof  thus  re- 
flecting every  ray  into  which  the  prism  divides  the  light,  or  which  is  exhibited 
by  the  heavenly  bo\v. 


FIG.  191. — PYROSOMA. 

If  when  walking  on  the  sea-shore,  about  low-water-mark,  we 
turn  over  large  stones,  or  look  under  projecting  eaves  of  rock,  we 
are  almost  sure  to  see  translucent,  jelly-like  masses  of  various  hues 
of  orange,  purple,  yellow,  blue,  grey,  and  green,  sometimes  nearly 
uniform  in  tint,  sometimes  beautifully  variegated,  and  very  fre- 
quently pencilled  as  if  with  stars  of  gorgeous  device — now  encrust- 
ing the  surface  of  the  rock,  now  depending  from  it  in  icicle-like 
projections.  These  are 

Compound  Ascidians.  A  tangle  or  broad-leaved  fucus  torn  from  its 
rocky  bed,  or  gathered  on  the  sands,  where  the  waves  have  cast  it,  will  show 
us  similar  bodies,  mostly  star-figured,  investing  its  stalks,  winding  amongst 
its  roots,  or  clothing  with  a  glairy  coat  the  expanse  of  its  foliated  extremities. 
If  we  keep  some  of  these  in  a  vessel  of  sea- water,  we  find  they  lie  as  apathetic 
as  sponges,  giving  few  symptoms 
of  vitality.  A  closer  and  micro- 
scopic inspection,  however,  will 
soon  show  us  currents  in  the  water 
surrounding  them,  streams  eject- 
ed from  their  apertures,  and  water 
rushing  in,  indicating  that,  how- 
ever torpid  the  creature  may  ap- 
pear externally,  all  the  machinery 
of  life,  the  respiratory  wheels  and 
circulatory  pumps,  are  hard  at 
work  in  its  numerous  recesses.  The 
whole  mass,  in  fact,  is  composed 
of  an  aggregation  of  minute  Ascidians,  conjoined  in  elegant  microscopic 


FIG.  192.—  Co.MPOL-NDAsciDiAX.  STARRY  BOTRYLLUS.* 
a,  natural  size  ;  b,  one  of  the  composite  stars  magnified. 


*  fiarpvs,  botrys,  a  bunch  of  grapes. 


192  CONCHIFERA. 


groups,  all  constructed  upon  the  same  plan  as  that  described  above,  and  all 
actively  employed  in  taking  in  and  ejecting  the  currents  that  bring  them  nu- 
triment. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

THIRD  CLASS  OF  MOLLUSKS. 
ORDINARY  BIVALVES.     CONCHIFERA.* 

'  I  ^HE  inhabitants  of  bivalve  shells  constitute  a  very  numerous 
X  and  important  class.  Encased  in  dense  and  massive  cover- 
ings, of  such  construction  as  to  preclude  the  possibility  of  their 
maintaining  more  than  a  very  imperfect  intercourse  with  the  ex- 
ternal world,  and  deprived  even  of  the  means  of  communication 
with  each  other,  we  might  naturally  expect  their  organization  to 
correspond  in  its  general  feebleness  with  the  circumscribed  means 
of  enjoyment  and  limited  capabilities  of  locomotion  allotted  to 
them.  Numerous  species  are,  from  the  period  of  their  birth,  firmly 
cemented  to  the  rock  that  gives  them  support,  as  is  familiarly 
exemplified  by  the  common  oyster,  or  else,  as  the  mussels,  anchor 
themselves  securely  by  unyielding  cables  of  their  own  construc- 
tion. The  scallop,  unattached,  but  scarcely  better  adapted  for 
changing  its  position,  rudely  flaps  together  the  valves  of  its  ex- 
panded shell,  and  thus,  by  repeated  jerks,  succeeds  in  effecting  a 
retrogressive  movement ;  while  the  cockles,  destined  to  burrow 
in  the  sand,  are  furnished  with  a  tongue-like  foot,  by  means  of 
which  they  dig  holes,  wherein  they  lie  concealed,  or  crawl,  or  even 
leap  about  upon  the  shore.  Many,  as  the  Pholades,  penetrate  the 
solid  rocks  and  stones,  and  excavate  therein  the  caverns  they  in- 
habit, or,  as  in  the  instance  of  the  Teredo,  with  dangerous  industry, 
bore  into  the  bottoms  of  ships,  or  submerged  wood  of  any  de- 
scription, and  si1.  ?ntly  destroy,  by  their  perfidious  ravages,  the  piers 
or  dykes  that  human  labour  has  erected.  The  general  structure 
of  these  animals  may  be  readily  understood  by  examining  any  of 
the  species  common  in  our  markets.  We  will  select 

The  Scallop  (Pecten}  for  special  description.  On  opening  the  shells  of  the 
scallop,  we  see,  inside  each  valve,  first  a  thin  and  transparent  membrane  en- 
closing the  entire  animal.  This  is  the  mantle.  Its  edges  are  thickened  and 
surrounded  with  a  fringe  of  very  sensitive  fleshy  filaments  ;  they  are  likewise 

*  Concha,  a  shell ;  fero,  I  carry. 


SCALLOP.  193 


studded  with  glands  which  secrete  a  colouring  matter  exactly  agreeing  with 
the  tints  on  the  exterior  of  the  shell,  which  they  assist  in  ornamenting.  Be- 
tween the  leaves  of  the  mantle  are  placed  the  branchiae  or  gills,  always  four 
in  number,  formed  of  fringes  pointing  outwards,  and  free  at  their  outer  edges, 
so  as  to  float  loosely  in  the  surrounding  water.  The  mouth  is  placed  between 


FIG.  193.— SCALLOP. 

the  two  innermost  gills  at  the  point  where  they  unite ;  it  is  a  simple  orifice, 
guarded  by  four  thin  and  sensitive  lips.  Between  the  layers  of  the  mantle  is 
enclosed  a  fleshy  organ,  something  resembling  a  tongue  in  its  structure ;  this, 
though  small  in  the  scallop,  becomes  in  many  genera  of  large  dimensions,  and 
assumes  functions  of  great  importance  and  interest.  At  the  hinge  or  point 
where  the  two  shells  are  united,  there  is  a  very  elastic  substance,  the  resiliency 
of  which  tends  to  force  them  apart.  To  counteract  this,  a  stout,  compact,  and 
very  powerful  muscle  proceeds  from  near  the  .centre  of  one  valve,  to  that  of 
the  other,  which,  by  its  contraction,  draws  them  together  and  keeps  them 
closed.  When  the  animal  wishes  to  open  its  shell,  it  relaxes  this  muscle,  and 
the  elastic  ligament,  previously  in  a  state  of  compression,  forces  them  asunder. 
It  is  the  contractile  power  of  this  muscle  which  renders  it  so  difficult  to  open 
an  oyster  :  the  inserted  knite  cuts  through  the  muscle,  and  it  opens  immedi- 
ately. __  In  a  great  majority  of  the  Conchifera  there  are  two  of  these  muscles 
placed  far  apart,  as  in  the  common  mussel.  The  hinge  also,  in  many,  is 
much  more  complicated,  presenting  a  curious  array  of  notches  and  teeth — 
depressions  and  elevations  that  lock  into  each  other.  In  genera  so  constructed 
the  elastic  ligament  is  placed  upon  the  outside  of  the  hinge,  and  opens  the 
shell  by  its  contraction,  not  by  its  expansion.  When  approximated,  the  valves 
of  the  shell  generally  fit  accurately  to  each  other,  but  in  some  cases  a  part  of 
the  circumference  is  left  permanently  open. 

Whoever  for  a  moment  reflects  upon  the  arrangement  of  the 
branchial  apparatus,  and  the  position  of  the  mouth,  consisting 
as  it  does  of  a  simple  aperture  unprovided  with  any  prehensile 
organs,  must  perceive  that  there  are  two  circumstances  connected 
\vith  the  economy  of  a  Conchiferous  Mollusk,  and  those  not  of 
secondary  importance,  by  no  means  easily  accounted  for.  It  is, 

13 


I94  CONCHIFERA. 


in  the  first  place,  absolutely  essential  to  the  existence  of  these 
animals  that  the  element  in  immediate  contact  with  the  respi- 
ratory surfaces  should  be  renewed  as  rapidly  as  it  becomes  de- 
teriorated, or  suffocation  would  inevitably  be  the  speedy  result. 
Secondly,  it  is  natural  to  inquire,  How  is  food  conveyed  into  the 
mouth  ?  for  in  an  animal,  itself  fixed  and  motionless,  quite  de- 
prived of  any  means  of  seizing  prey,  or  even  of  protruding  any 
part  of  its  body  beyond  the  margin  of  its  abode,  it  is  not  easy  to 
imagine  by  what  procedure  a  due  supply  of  nutriment  is  pro- 
cured. 


FIG.  194. — VENUS  CHIONE.  FIG.  195 — SPINED  VENUS. 

Wonderful,  indeed,  is  the  elaborate  mechanism  employed  to 
effect  the  double  purpose  of  renewing  the  respired  fluid,  and 
feeding  the  helpless  inhabitant  of  these  shells.  Every  filament 
of  the  gill- fringe,  examined  under  a  powerful  microscope,  is  found 
to  be  covered  with  countless  cilia,  in  constant  vibration,  causing, 
by  their  united  efforts,  powerful  and  rapid  currents,  which,  sweep- 
ing over  the  entire  surface  of  the  gills,  hurry  towards  the  mouth 
whatever  floating  animalcules  or  nutritious  particles  may  be 
brought  within  the  limits  of  their  action,  and  thus  bring  streams 
of  nutritive  atoms  to  the  very  aperture  through  which  they  are 
conveyed  to  the  stomach,  the  lips  and  labial  fringes  acting  as 
sentinels  to  admit,  or  refuse  entrance,  as  the  matter  supplied  be 
of  a  wholesome  or  pernicious  character.  So  energetic,  indeed,  is 
this  ciliary  movement  over  the  entire  extent  of  the  branchial 
organs,  that  if  any  portion  of  the  gills  be  cut  off  with  a  pair  of 
scissors,  it  immediately  swims  away,  and  continues  to  row  itself 
in  a  given  direction  as  long  as  the  cilia  upon  its  surface  continue 
their  mysterious  activity. 


OYSTERS. 


195 


The  Conchifera  may  be  classed  in  accordance  with  the  follow- 
ing table : 

/  Having  the  mantle  open,  and  without  tubes  or  special")    Ostracea. 
apertures )       Oysters. 


/Open  in  front  and  having' 

but  one  separate  aperture  ( 

Mytilacea. 

for   the   escape  of  effete  ( 

Mussels. 

j 

matter    .          

HIPERA. 

illy  closed  be 
il  openings 

il*  ItJ  JUlill  LUUC3.  . 

The  mantle  —  . 

Closed  and  pierced  by  three 
apertures,  the  first  of  which 
serves  /or  the  passage  of 
the  foot,  the   second   for 

Chamacea. 

O 

"13  o 

respiration,  and  the  third 

Clams. 

55 

c3  a, 

for  the  exit  of  excrementi- 

S"bX)    ' 

\  tious  materials     .... 

"+3  c 

a  ""^ 

| 

Open  in  front  and  present-  "j 
ing  two  tubes  behind   .     .  j 

Cardiacea. 
Cockles. 

r^~"   ~ 

ft 

Prolonged  so  as  to  j 
form  tubes.  The  ' 
mantle  —  ..  .  .\ 

Closed  and  having  in  front  > 
or    below    only   a   single  , 
opening  for  the  passage  of 
the  foot,  and  two  tubes  be-  ' 

Inclusa. 
Borers. 

I  hind  . 

The  first  family  of  the  Conchifera  includes  Oysters  (Ostracea} ; 
these  have  no  foot,  and  the  mantle  is  entirely  open ;  the  shell  is 
irregular,  thick  and  foliated,  and  is  generally  fixed  to  some  foreign 
body  by  the  outer  surface  of  one  valve.  The  hinge  is  toothless, 
and  the  ligament  is  internal. 

The  Common  Oyster.  "The  living  luxury"  is  too  well  known  to  need 
description. 

The  Tree-Oyster  (Ostrea  arborea\  which  in  Africa  is  met  with  clinging  in  clus- 
ters to  the  exposed  roots  of  the  mangrove-trees  that  fringe  the  margin  of  all  the  great 
rivers  in  tropical  climates,  is,  according  to  Adanson,  as  delicate  and  well  tasted  as  our 
own.  The  negroes  lop  off  a  branch  loaded  with  the  shells,  obtaining,  by  one  stroke  of 
the  axe,  a  large  supply,  for  if  the  branch  has  many  offsets,  the  load  will  be  enough  for 
any  one  man  to  carry. 

The  Pile-Shells  (Lima)  usually  live  at  the  bottom  of  shallow  seas,  with 
the  valves  widely  extended  and  thrown  flat  back,  like  the  wings  of  certain 
butterflies,  when  basking  in  the  sun  ;  but  when  disturbed,  they  start  up,  flap 
their  light  shells,  and  move  rapidly  through  the  water  by  a  succession  of 
sudden  jerks.  The  cause  of  their  alarm  over,  they  bring  themselves  to  an 
anchor.  When  many  hundreds  of  these  curious  bivalves  are  seen  together 
in  the  recesses  of  clear  pools,  surrounded  by  living  branches  of  parti-coloured 
corals,  their  crimson-spotted  mantles  and  the  fringes  around  them  exhibit  a 
very  rich  and  beautiful  spectacle. 

13—2 


196 


CONCHIFERA. 


FIG.  156.— LIMA. 


The  Scallops  (Pecteti)  sometimes  attach  themselves  to  rocks,  and  some- 
times cover  extensive  banks.  These  bivalves  are  said  to  be  able  to  see,  and 
certain  bright  spots  upon  the  margin  of  their  mantle  are  believed  to  be  eyes; 
indeed,  one  species  has  been  named,  after  Juno's  watchman,  the  Argus. 
Whether  these  brilliant  pearl-like  specks,  so  strangely  situated,  are  really  in- 
struments of  vision  is,  however,  open  to  doubt. 


FIG.  197. — GREAT  SCALLOP. 


The  Pearl-Shells  (Amenta).      To  this  family  belongs  the  celebrated 
Pearl-Oyster.    Their  shells  are  imported  in  immense  quantities,  forming  the 


MUSSELS.  197 


celebrated  "mother-of-pearl"  so  much  employed   in  inlaying  cabinet-work, 
making  knife-handles,  paper-cutters,  and  a  thousand  other  pretty  articles. 

The  pearl  fishery  is  carried  on  in  Jhe  neighbourhood  of  Ceylon  and  in  the 
Persian  Gulf.  The  pearl-oysters  are  obtained  by  diving  in  about  twelve 
fathoms.  Many  lives  are  annually  sacrificed  in  pursuit  of  these  highly-prized 
baubles. 

The  second  family  of  Conchiferous  Mollusks  comprehends 

The  Mussels  (Mytilacea],  all  of  which  are  furnished  with  a  foot,  enabling 
them  to  creep  about,  and  by  its  assistance  they  construct  a  cable  composed 
of  horny  threads,  called  byssus,  whereby  they  attach  themselves  to  rocks. 


FIG.  198. — ANIMAL  OF  MUSSEL. 

The  Wing-Shells  (Pinna]  are  remarkable  for  the  fineness  of  their  bys- 
sus.  When  mingled  with  about  a  third  of  real  silk,  it  is  sometimes  spun  and 
manufactured  into  gloves,  £c.,  but  they  are  merely  objects  of  curiosity. 

The  true  Mussels  (Mytilus]  are  well  known  to  everybody  :  they  frequent 
mud  banks  which  are  uncovered  at  low  water,  are  very  prolific,  and  attain 
their  full  growth  in  a  single  year.  By  means  of  a  strong  byssus  they  fasten 
themselves  to  the  rocks,  where  they  defy  the  violence  of  the  storm.  "  The 
mussel  is  the  owl  of  the  sea,"  says  Charles  Lamb  ;  "  Minerva's  fish,  the  fish  of 
wisdom.  He  hears  the  tide  roll  backwards  and  forwards  over  him  twice  a 
day,  as  the  Salisbury  coach  goes  and  returns  in  eight-and-forty  hours  ;  but  he 
knows  better  than  to  take  an  outside  place  on  it." 

The  River-Mussels  (Unto}  are  met  with  in  fresh- water  lakes,  rivers,  and 
ponds  throughout  the  whole  world.  In  some  of  them  pearls  are  found  which 
are  bright  and  of  exquisite  lustre  :  formerly  there  were  extensive  fisheries  of 
them  both  in  Wales  and  Scotland.  One  taken  from  the  river  Conway,  in 
North  Wales,  is  to  this  day  honoured  with  a  place  in  the  imperial  crown  of 
England. 


198 


CONCHIFEXA. 


FIG.  199.— PIN  x.\. 

The  third  family  of  Conchifera  embraces 

The  Clams  (Chamaced),  in  which  the  two  sides  of  the  mantle  are  conjoined 
so  as  to  leave  three  apertures,  through  one  of  which  the  "  foot "  is  protruded  ; 
a  second  is  for  the  entrance  and  expulsion  of  the  water  required  for  respira- 


FIG.  200. — MUSSELS. 

tion,  while  through  the  third  effete  materials  are  rejected.  These  two  last 
openings  are  not  prolonged  into  a  tube  or  respiratory  siphon.  To  this  family 
belong 

The  Clam-Shells  (Tridacne),  the  giants  of  the  bivalve  race.  They  live 
attached  by  their  byssus  to  rocks,  shells,  and  corals.  The  valve  of  a  large 
individual  forms  a  very  picturesque  basin  for  catching  the  clear  falling  water 
of  a  fountain,  which  flows  prettily  through  its  deeply  indented  edges.  In 


COCKLES.  199 


Roman  Catholic  countries  the  valves  of  this  huge  shell  are  sometimes  em- 
ployed as  " benitiers"  or  vessels  for  containing  holy  water.  A  pair  so  used 
may  be  seen  in  the  church  of  St.  Sulpice,  in  Paris,  which  weigh  five  hundred 
pounds,  and  are  more  than  two  feet  across.  Specimens  attain  even  larger 
dimensions  than  these,  and  are  the  largest  shells  known.  The  byssus  is  so 
thick,  and  its  attachment  to  the  rock  so  strong,  that  it  is  frequently  necessary 
to  cut  it  with  a  hatchet  in  order  to  obtain  the  animal. 


FIG.  201.— CLAM-SHELL. 

These  are  the  shells  alluded  to  by  Captain  Flinders,  who  observes  : 
' '  Many  enormous  cockles  were  scattered  upon  different  parts  of  the  reef.  At  low  water 
this  cockle  seems  most  commonly  to  lie  half  open  ;  but  frequently  closes  with  much 
noise,  and  the  water  within  the  shells  then  spouts  up  into  a  stream  three  or  four  feet 
high.  It  was  from  this  noise,  and  the  spouting  of  the  water,  that  we  discovered  them, 
for  in  other  respects  they  were  scarcely  to  be  distinguished  from  the  coral  rock.  A 
number  of  these  cockles  were  taken  on  board  the  ship,  and  stewed  in  the  coppers,  but 
they  were  too  rank  to  be  agreeable  food,  and  were  eaten  by  few." 

The  fourth  family  of  Conchiferous  Mollusks  embraces 

The  Cockles  (Cardiacea}.  These  are  distinguished  by  the  mantle  being 
open  in  front,  and,  moreover,  by  having  two  separate  apertures,  one  serving 
for  respiration  and  the  other  for  the  discharge  of  effete  materials  ;  these  are 
prolonged  into  two  tubes  (Fig.  202),  which  are  sometimes  distinct  from  each 
other,  but  occasionally  conjoined.  As  a  general  rule,  those  species  provided 
with  long  tubes  burrow  into  mud  or  sand.  As  examples  of  this  family,  we 
may  instance 

The  Common  Cockle  (Car&uiii),  met  with  upon  sandy  shores  in  great 
abundance,  where,  under  the  name  of  "  red  noses,"  they  constitute  an  important 
article  of  food.  In  the  cockles  "  the  foot "  is  an  organ  of  considerable  size, 
assuming  all  sorts  of  shapes.  Sometimes  it  is  used  lor  burrowing,  for  which 


2oo  CONCHIFERA. 


it  is  admirably  adapted.  The  animal  lengthens  the  foot  into  a  wedge,  which 
it  Jhrusts  deep  into  the  sand,  and  then,  turning  the  end  into  the  shape  of  a 
hook,  and  thus  acquiring  ahold,  it  drags  itself  down,  and  becomes  buried  so 
deeply,  that  only  the  projecting  ends  of  the  tubes,  through  which  it  breathes, 
are  visible.  By  an  opposite  process,  bending  the  end  of  the  foot,  and  pushing 


FIG.  202.  — TELLINA. 


against  the  sand  at  the  bottom  of  its  hole,  the  shell  is  again  extruded.  At 
the  bottom  of  the  water  the  cockle  can  also  move  with  considerable  speed,  by 
pushing  with  its  foot  against  the  ground  as  a  ferryman  poles  his  boat  across 
a  river.  Nor  is  this  all  ;  for  by  stiffly  bending  the  same  wonderful  organ,  and 
letting  it  go  by  a  sudden  spring-like  extension,  some  species  can  bound  into 
the  air  and  jump  about  with  considerable  activity.  To  this  group  belong  the 
beautiful  Venus  Shells  (Fig.  195),  the  Madras,  and  a  host  of  others  of  similar 
conformation. 

The  fifth  family  of  Conchiferous  Mollusks  has  received    the 
name  of 

Inclusa  (Enclosed],  the  animals  having  the  margins  of  the  mantle,  with 


FIG.  203.— THE  SANDGAFER. 


the  exception  of  a  single  opening  for  the  passage  of  the  foot,  completely  united, 
so  as  to  form  a  double  tube,  the  end  of  which  can  be  protruded  to  a  consider- 
able distance  from  the  shell,  that  gapes  more  or  less  widely  to  ^ive  it  passage. 


RAZOR-SHELLS. 


201 


They  almost  all  of  them  live  buried  in  the  sand,  or  else  they  bore  into  mud 
or  even  into  the  solid  rock.  To  this  family  belong  % 

The  Stone-borers  (Saxicavd}*  These  shell-fish  generally  bore  in  lime- 
stone rocks.  Wherever  we  have  a  sea-coast  of  mountain  limestone,  the  sub- 
stance of  the  rock  is  almost  invariably  riddled  by  them.  Some  years  ago  it  was 
discovered  that  the  whole  front  of  the  Plymouth  Breakwater  had  been  attacked 
by  these  excavators,  and  great  alarm  was  excited  for  its  safety.  Luckily  they 
do  not  drive  their  tunnels  more  than  six  inches  deep,  so  that  unless  there  be 
a  new  surface  exposed  by  the  destruction  of  the  perforated  part,  there  is  not 
much  danger  to  be  apprehended  from  them. 

The  Razor-Shells  (Sole-it),^  usually  burrow  in  the  sand,  which  they  pene- 
trate with  their  powerful  foot.  They  are  much  valued  for  their  excellence  as 
articles  of  food.  When  properly  cooked  (broiling  is  the  best  method),  they 


FIG.  204.— SAXICAVA. 


FIG.  205. — ANIMAL  OF  RAZOR-SHELL. 

are  by  some  thought  to  be  superior  to  any  other  shell-fish.  They  lie  in  their 
holes  nearly  in  a  vertical  position,  and  move  up  and  down  in  their  burrows, 
sometimes  rising  to  the  surface  as  if  to  see  what  is  going  on  in  the  world  above. 
When  the  tide  goes  out  they  sink  deeper.  The  fishermen  then  endeavour  to 
tempt  them  out,  as  little  boys  would  catch  birds  if  they  could,  by  putting  salt 
-on  their  tails.  The  salt  irritates  the  extremity  of  their  siphons,  and  the  Solen 

*  Saxum,  a  stone  ;  cavo,  to  scoop,  to  bore  through.  t  (ru\r]v,  solen,  a  tube. 


202 


CONCHIFERA. 


rises  suddenly  to  get  rid  of  the  nuisance.  The  vigilant  human  enemy  watches 
the  moment,  and  seizes  the  opportunity — and  the  Solen — if  he  can  catch  it ; 
bift  unless  very  quick  in  his  movements,  those  of  the  Solen  may  be  quicker, 
and  once  aware  of  the  impending  danger,  the  sensible  shell-fish  will  not  come 
up  again,  but  submits  patiently  to  be  salted  alive  rather  than  run  the  risk  of 
being  caught  and  roasted,  or  else  cut  up  for  a  bait. — PROFESSOR  FORBES. 
The  Pholades*  are  likewise  borers.  They  excavate  for  themselves  the 

dens  in  which  they  re- 
side, in  stone,  clay,  wood, 
or  other  substances,  and 
in  these  excavations  they 
live  a  sedentary  life. 
Their  shell  is  generally 
thin  and  brittle,  but  it  is 
extremely  hard,  and  co- 
vered externally  with  file- 
like  teeth,  that  seem  to 
constitute  the  tools  em- 
ployed in  their  boring 
operations. 

The  Ship-Worm 
(Teredo}^  well  charac- 
terized by  Linnaeus  as 
the  "  calcunitas  navium" 
seems  to  have  been  spe- 
cially appointed  by  Pro- 
vidence for  the  removal 
of  floating  timber,  which 
otherwise,  by  its  accu- 
mulation, might  impede 
the  navigation  of  the  sea. 
The  mantle  is  excessive- 
ly lengthened  into  a  sort 
of  tube,  while  the  valves 
are  minute,  so  that  the 
appearance  of  these  bi- 
valves is  rather  that  of  a 
worm  than  of  a  Mollusk. 
It  bores  holes  in  all  di- 
rections through  wood 
lying  in  the  sea,  lining 
the  interior  of  its  excava- 
tions with  a  shelly  crust. 
The  piles  of  piers  and 
wharves,  the  gates  of 
docks,  and  the  bottoms 


FIG.  207. — SHIP-WORM  AND  ITS  SHELL. 


of  ships  are  soon  riddled 
and    pierced    by    these 


animals,  insomuch  that  serious  fears  have  been  more  than  once  entertained 


*  0wXeuw,  pholeuo,  to  lie  in  a  hole. 


t  reptu,  tereo,  to  bore. 


BRACHIOPODA.  203 


for  the  safety  of  Holland,  from  their  destructive  attacks  upon  the  wood  of  the 
flood-gates  and  dykes.  A  few  weeks'  immersion  of  a  piece  of  fir-wood  suffices 
to  enable  the  Teredo  to  bore  it  through  and  through,  and  even  the  hardest 
oak  is  not  able  to  resist  this  formidable  destroyer. 


CHAPTER   XVIII. 

FOURTH  CLASS  OF  MOLLUSKS. 

BRACHIOPODA.* 

THIS  is  a  very  limited  group,  the  members  of  which  might 
readily  be  supposed  at  first  sight  to  belong  to  the  ordinary 
bivalves  described  in  the  last  chapter.    They  are  contained  within 
a  pair  of  shells,  more  or  less  resembling  those  of  the  common 


FIG.  208. — BRACIIIOPOD. 

cockle.  One  shell,  however,  is  larger  and  more  convex  than  the 
other,  and  is  generally  pierced  with  a  hole  near  the  hinge.  The 
shells  are  for  the  most  part  fixed  to  some  rock  or  other  object  by 
a  fleshy  stalk,  but  in  one  genus  (Orbicula)  the  lower  valve  itself 
is  cemented  to  the  rock. 

On  opening  the  shell  the  structure  of  the  enclosed  Mollusk  is 
at  once  seen  to  differ  widely  from  that  of  the  scallop  and  all  the 
Conchiferous  class.  On  each  side  of  the  mouth,  which  is  placed  at 
the  bottom  of  the  fold  of  the  mantle,  extends  a  fleshy  arm,  fringed 
with  long  cilia.  In  some  species  these  arms  are  of  great  length, 
and  can  be  protruded  from  the  shells  to  a  considerable  distance, 

,  brachion,  an  arm  ;  Trofs,  TroSJs,  pous,  podos,  afoot:  arm-footed. 


204 


GASTEROPODA. 


or  retracted  into  elegant  spiral  folds  at  the  pleasure  of  the  animal. 
The  most  obvious  function  attributable  to  the  tentacular  arms 
is  that  of  procuring  food  ;  for,  being  otherwise  deprived  of  pre- 
hensile instruments,  without  some  adequate  mechanism  these 
helpless  creatures,  imprisoned  in  their  shelly  covering  and  fixed 
in  one  locality,  would  be  utterly  unable  to  obtain  the  nourishment 
necessary  for  their  support.  The  contrivance  for  this  purpose  is 

found  in  the  arms,  which,  covered 
by  cilia,  produce  powerful  cur- 
rents in  the  surrounding  water; 
and  these,  being  directed  towards 
the  mouth  as  to  a  focus,  hurry 
down  the  throat  of  the  animal 
whatever  nutritive  particles  may 
happen  to  be  in  the  neighbour- 
hood. The  muscles  supplied  for 
closing  the  shell  in  the  Conchifera 
are  never  more  than  two  in  num- 
ber, and  these  pass  immediately 
from  one  valve  to  the  other :  in 
the  Brachiopods,  on  the  contrary, 

FIG.  309.-SHELLV  FRAMEWORK  OF  BRACHIOPOD.  the  HlUSCular  System  IS  VCiy  COm- 

plicated,  no  fewer  than  six  pairs 

being  provided  either  to  act  upon  the  valves  or  to  move  the  animal 
upon  its  pedicle.  Their  shells,  moreover,  contain  a  complex  frame- 
work for  the  support  of  the  arms  (Fig.  209).  Seeing,  therefore, 
that  these  creatures  differ  from  all  other  bivalves  in  almost  every 
part  of  their  structure,  there  can  be  little  doubt  of  the  propriety 
of  considering  them  as  forming  a  distinct  class. 


CHAPTER   XIX. 

FIFTH  CLASS  OF  MOLLUSKS, 

GASTEROPODA.* 

THE  Gasteropod  Mollusks  are  so  named  on  account  of  the 
.    peculiarity  of  their  locomotive  apparatus.      The  inferior 
surface  of  the  body  is  spread  out  into  a  broad  fleshy  disk  or  foot, 
on  which  the  animal  crawls  with  an  uniform  gliding  motion.   The 

*  yaaT-fjp,  gaster,  the  belly;  TTOVS,  irodbs,  pous,  podos,  afoot. 


GASTEROPODA. 


205 


back  is  covered  more  or  less  completely  with  a  mantle,  which  in 
the  great  majority  of  species  secretes  a  shell.  In  some,  as  in  several 
of  our  native  slugs,  the  shell  is  very  small,  and  is  concealed  within 
the  substance  of  the  short 
mantle.  But  in  general,  as  in 
the  snail  and  the  whelk,  the 
shell  is  capacious,  capable  of  l 
receiving  and  concealing  the 
whole  body.  Its  form  is  com- 
monly that  of  a  long  cone, 
twisted  in  a  spiral  manner 
upon  itself. 

The  innumerable  species 
belonging  to  this  extensive 
class  are  distributed  by  Cuvier 
under  several  orders,  distin- 
guished by  the  structure  and  position  of  their  organs  of  respira- 
tion, as  in  the  following  tabular  arrangement : 

Breathing  air Pulmonifera,  p.  206. 


FIG.  210.— VOLUTE  CRAWLIN 


§ 
l< 


ll 

o 


K 


In  a  dorsal 
cavity  .     . 

Shell 


Almost     al-  *) 

ways    turbi-  >  Pectinibranchiata,  p.  208. 
nate    .     .     .  )• 

Tubiform  .    .   Tubulibranchiata,  p.  213. 
Very    open,  J 

the  form  of  a  [  Scutibranchiatia,  p.  213. 

shield.    .    .1 


Beneath  a  fold  of  the  man- 


Tectibranohiata,  P. 


a  straight  'edge  of  the  foot 


Beneath  (United  !"  |  Cyclobranchiata,  p.  215. 
the  edge  of  1 
•themantle  (Without    a  j  Inferobranohiata,  p.  215. 


§w 


V  Upon  the  back     ....    Nudibranchiata,  p.  216. 
vertically  compressed,  only  fit}  Heteropoda>  p.  2 


206  GASTEROPODS. 


ORDER  PULMONIFERA.* 

The  Air-breathing  Gasteropods,  of  which  the  slug  and  the 
snail  are  familiar  examples,  respire  atmospheric  air,  which  is 
alternately  drawn  into  and  expelled  from  a  cavity  lined  with  a 
most  delicate  network  of  blood-vessels :  this  respiratory  organ 
opens  externally  on  the  right  side  of  the  body,  near  the  margin 
of  the  shell,  below  the  collar  of  the  mantle.  Some  are  terrestrial, 
others  live  in  streams  or  in  sluggish  stagnant  waters;  some  are 
shelled,  others  are  naked. 

The  Terrestrial  Air-breathing  Gasteropods  are  at  once 
recognizable  by  their  four  tentacula,  or  horns,  as  they  are  com- 
monly called.  These  appendages  are  retractile,  and  the  upper  pair 
have  eyes  at  their  extremities.  The  mouth  is  armed  with  a  broad 
cutting  tooth,  and  a  wonderfully-constructed  tongue,  studded  with 
innumerable  microscopic  teeth.  Some  are  only  provided  with 
an  internal  shell,  while  others  have  an  external  shell  spirally 
twisted. 


FlG.    211.  —  SXAILS   AND    SLUGS. 


The  Slugs  (Lima.v)  are  without  any  apparent  shell ;   their  mantle  is  a 
fleshy  disk  scarcely  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  skin,  and  only  occupies  the 

*  Pulmo,  a  lung;  fero,  to  carry. 


SNAILS. 


207 


fore-part  of  the  back,  where  it  covers  the  pulmonary  cavity.  It  often  encloses 
in  its  thickness  a  small  flat  shelly  plate.  These  animals  are  herbivorous ;  they 
feed  principally  upon  young  plants,  fruits,  mushrooms,  £c.,  and  are  most 
voracious  towards  evening.  During  the  heat  of  the  day  they  remain  concealed 
under  stones,  or  beneath  some  heap  of  half-decayed  leaves,  or  even  in  the 

earth,  and  they  seldom 
come  out,  except  in  the 
morning  and  evening, 
when  the  air  is  numid; 
they  are  especially  abun- 
dant after  rain.  During 
the  cold  season  they  bury 
themselves  in  the  ground 
and  remain  torpid. 

The    Snails    (Helix) 
have  a  complete  and  ap- 

II  •  I  parent  shell.   Their  struc- 

ture ditiers  very  little  from 
that  ot  the  slugs,  and  their 
habits  are  nearly  the  same. 
In  summer  they  are  very 
FIG.  212.— GARDEN  SNAIL.  voracious  and  destructive, 

but   in  autumn  they  eat 

little.  On  the  approach  of  winter  they  retire  into  some  hole  and  draw  them- 
selves into  their  shell,  shutting  up  the  aperture  with  a  kind  of  door  secreted 
by  the  edge  of  the  mantle.  The  species  of  snails  are  very  numerous :  they 
are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

The  Aquatic  Air-breathing  G-asteropods  have  but  tii-o 
tentacles:  their -mode  of  respiration  obliges  them  to  come  fre- 
quently to  the  surface  of  the  water  to  breathe.  They  conse- 
quently cannot  keep  at  great  depths,  and  ordinarily  reside  in 
fresh  waters  or  near  the  mouths  of  rivers. 

The  Pond-Snails  (Liumccus^  common  in  ever)'  pond,  live  upon  vegetables 
and  the  seeds  of  water-plants,  and  for  this  purpose  are  provided  with  a  strong 
muscular  gizzard. 


FlG.   213.— LlMN.-EUS 


2:4.  —  Pl.ANO^SIS    CORNEL'S. 


The  Flat  Coils  (Planorbis)  are  recognized  by  their  shells  being  rolled  up 
spirally  in  the  same  plane,  like  a  French  horn.  Their  habits  are  similar  to 
those  of  the  pond-snails,  of  which  they  are  the  constant  companions.  Their 


208  PECTINIBRANCHIATA. 

presence  in  an  aquarium  is  useful,  inasmuch  as  they  destroy  voraciously  the 
green  confervae,  that  otherwise  are  apt  to  accumulate  on  the  sides  of  the  glass. 

ORDER  PECTINIBRANCHIATA.* 

The  Comb-gilled  G-asteropods  constitute  by  far  the  most 
numerous  Order  of  the  class.  They  are  so  called  because  they 
breathe  by  means  of  gills  disposed  in  the  form  of  a  comb,  and 
arranged  in  one  or  two  rows  suspended  from  the  interior  of  a 
chamber  or  cavity  situated  in  the  last-formed  or  most  capacious 
whorl  of  the  shell,  and  communicating  with  the  surrounding  ele- 
ment by  means  of  a  wide  channel  or  tube  called  the  siphon.  The 


FIG.  215. — THE  WHELK,  SHOWING  ITS  OP 

multitudinous  species  of  marine  Mollusks  that  inhabit  spiral  or 
univalve  shells  belong  to  this  Order.  Many  of  them  have  a  shelly 
or  horny  plate  attached  to  the  hinder  part  of  their  body  called 
the  opercnlum  :  this  accurately  fits  trie  orifice  of  the  shell,  to 
which  it  serves  as  a  door  when  the  animal  withdraws  into  its 
habitation. 

All  the  Pectinibranchiate  Mollusks  have  two  tentacles  and  two 
eyes,  sometimes  supported  on  special  footstalks.  Their  mouth  is 
in  the  form  of  a  tube  or  proboscis,  capable  of  being  protruded  by 

*  Pecten,  a  comb ;  branchiae,  gills:  comb-gilled. 


VIOLET  SHELLS. 


a  very  peculiar  mechanism,  and  furnished  at  its  extremity  with  a 
kind  of  file,  by  the  aid  of  which  they  bore  through  the  shells  of 
other  Mollusca,  notwithstanding  the  massiveness  of  the  defensive 
armour  of  their  victims.  Their  eggs  are  very  numerous,  and  are 
generally  enclosed  in  cases  of  complicated  form  and  very  curious 
structure. 

The  beauty,  and  more  especially  the  rarity,  of  the  shells  of 
many  species  have  often  caused  them  to  bear  a  very  high  adven- 
titous  value.  The  elegant  Chinese  shell,  known  as  the  "  Royal 
Staircase  "  or  Wentle-trap,  derived  its  specific  name  (Scalaria 
prctiosd)  from  the  high  price  at  which  large  and  fine  specimens 
were  sold.  One  was  purchased  in  France  for  a  hundred  pounds 
sterling,  and  in  England  from  twenty  to  thirty  pounds  have  been 
given  for  a  good  specimen.  The  shell  is  now  far  from  rare,  and 
shillings  take  the  place  of  pounds  in  the  purchase. 


FIG.  216.— THE  WENTLE-TRAT. 

The  Violet  Shells  (Janthina)  in  their  external  appearance  very  much  re- 
semble our  garden  snails,  and  are  not  furnished  with  an  operculum.  Instead 
of  this,  however,  they  possess  a  very  curious  apparatus  attached  to  their  rudi- 
mentary foot,  composed  of  a  substance  resembling  horny  froth,  that  serves  as 
a  float,  whereby  they  are  sustained  at  the  surface  of  the  sea,  and  to  which  as 
to  a  raft  the  Janthina  fastens  its  eggs.  These  Mollusks  are  common  in  the 
Mediterranean  :  on  touching  them  they  emit  a  violet-coloured  fluid  that  dyes 
the  water  around  them  of  a  deep  purple  colour. 

The  Cone  Shells  (Gomes'}  (Fig.  217)  are  remarkable  for  their  conical  shape 
and  the  flatness  of  their  spire,  as  well  as  for  the  extraordinary  beauty  and 
brilliancy  of  their  colours.  These  shells,  in  Africa,  in  regions  far  from  the  sea, 
are  considered  of  as  great  value  as  the  Lord  Mayor's  badge  is  in  London,  and 
are  so  highly  prized  as  evidences  of  distinction,  that  for  t\vo  of  them  a  slave 
may  be  bought,  and  five  would  be  considered  a  handsome  price  for  an  elephant's 
tusk  worth  ten  pounds. 

14 


210 


GASTEROPODA. 


The  Cowrie-Shells  (Cyprced),  many  of  which  form  the  ornaments  of  our 
chimneypieces  and  the  gems  of  our  cabinets,  are  of  very  peculiar  structure. 
In  the  earlier  period  of  their  growth  they  much  resemble  the  Cones  mentioned 


FIG.  217. — TIGKK  COWKIE  (O/';v<  'll  '/A'?/-'1).  HA  Hi1  {liar  f>(i  veitLruosu),  A.NU  CLOTH-OF-GoLD 
CONK  {Coitus  tc'.v  tihs). 

nbove ;  but  when  they  have  arrived  at  a  certain  size,  the  mantle  of  the  con- 
i. lined  Mollusk  spreads  over  the  entire  external  surface,  and  covers  it  with  a 
1'orcellanous  coat  quite  different  in  colour  from  the  original  shell,  and  this, 


FIG.  218.— YOUNG  COWRIE. 


FIG.  219.— MONEY  COWRIE,  ADULT. 


joined  to  the  changed  appearance  of  the  opening,  might  cause  the  adult  to  be 
mistaken  for  a  different  species. 

The  cowrie-shells  are  employed  by  Asiatic  islanders  to  adorn  their  dress, 
to  weight  their  fishing-nets,  and  for  barter.  Specimens  of  them  were  found 
by  Dr.  Layard  in  the  ruins  of  Nimroud.  The  Money  Cowrie  (Cyprcea  moneta} 


HELMET-SHELLS. 


211 


is  used  as  money  by  the  Africans :  hundreds  of  tons  are  imported  to  Liverpool 
and  exported  for  barter.* 

The  Harp-Shells  (Harpri)  are  recognizable  by  the  prominent  ribs  upon 
their  surface,  the  last  of  which  forms  the  marginal  border.  These  shells  are  very 
beautiful.  The  animal  (Fig.  217)  is  furnished  with  a  large  foot,  broad  in  front, 
and  pointed  posteriorly ;  its  tentacles  are  provided  with  eyes  situated  near 


their  bases  ;  it  has  no  operculum. 


FIG.  220. — CASSIS  TUBEROSA. 


FIG.  221.— THORNY  WOODCOCK. 


The  Helmet-Shells  (Cassis)  are  of  an  oval  shape,  and  have  their  opening 
long  and  narrow.  The  large  and  massive  shells  of  some  species  are  used  for 
the  manufacture  of  cameos,  which  are  cut  out  of  their  thick  substance,  as  repre- 
sented in  the  accompanying  figure  (Fig.  220).  The  subject  is  worked  in  relievo 
in  the  white  portion  or  outer  table  of  the  shell,  while  the  inner  layer,  generally 
of  a  pink  or  reddish-brown  tint,  is  left  for  the  background. 

The  Rock-Shells  (Mnrex)  are  ornamented  with  spines,  rough  tubercles,  or 
leafy,  frilled  processes,  arranged  in  a  regular  but  peculiar  order.  The  species 
which  we  have  figured  (Murex  tennispimi)  is  common  in  cabinets,  and  known 
to  collectors  by  the  name  of  the  "  Thorny  Woodcock." 

*  From  a  coarse  comparison  of  the  cowrie-shells  to  a  pig's  back,  they  were  vulgarly 
known  to  the  Portuguese  as  Porcellane  (Porcellus,  a  little  pig).  When  the  beautiful 
ware  known  as  china  was  first  imported,  the  resemblance  of  its  glaze  to  the  enamel  of 
the  cowrie-shell  caused  it  to  be  called  "porcelain." 

14 — 2 


212 


GASTEROPODA. 


A  purple  liquor,  capable  of  producing  a  rich  and  permanent  dye,  is  known 
to  be  produced  by  many  Gasteropods  ;  but  various  species  of  the  animals  in- 
habiting these  rock-shells  are  pre-eminent  for  this  property.  Accordingly,  we 
are  told  that  they  furnished  the  first  colour  which  mankind  was  enabled  to  fix 
permanently  on  wool  and  linen.  While  a  certain  person,  called  Hercules,  strolled 
along  the  shore  with  his  lady-love  and  her  dog,  the  latter  in  its  sport  mouthed 
a  shell  which  had  been  tossed  up  by  the  waves,  and  had  his  lips  coloured  by 
the  purple  juice.  The  lady,  enchanted  with  the  beauty  of  the  colour,  yearned 
for  a  dress  of  the  same  purple,  and  the  wish  sufficed  to  call  into  exercise  the 
ingenuity  of  her  lover,  who  succeeded  in  dyeing  her  a  garment.  The  Tyrian 
purple  was  perhaps  the  principal  commodity  of  Tyre,  when  her  "  merchants 
were  princes,  and  her  traffickers  the  honourable  of  the  earth." 


222. — GRANULATED  TROCHUS. 


FIG.   223  — PELICAN'S-FOOT  STROMBUS. 


The  dyeing  material  is  contained  in  a  tube  of  yellow  or  cream-colour  that 
mris  diagonally  across  the  body  of  the  Murex.  If  this  be  cut  with  a  sharp 
l>uir  of  scissors  it  gives  issue  to  a  creamy  substance,  which  is  the  colouring 
fluid.  When  applied  over  linen  with  a  camel-hair  brush,  the  hue  is  at  first  a 
rich  "king's  yellow,"  but  changes  in  a  few  minutes  to  a  delicate  pea-green. 
1  n  about  an  hour,  if  the  weather  be  cloudy,  it  has  become  of  a  yellow  grass- 
.ureen,  from  which  it  slowly  turns  to  a  blue-green,  thence  to  indigo,  then  to 
blue— a  red  tinge  next  becomes  apparent — then  violet,  then  a  purple  more  or 
less  tinged  with  red,  till  at  length,  after  five  or  six  hours,  without  direct  sun- 
light, it  assumes  its  final  tint,  a  rather  dull  purplish  crimson  or  lake.  Exposure 
to  the  sun  greatly  hastens  the  process. 

There  have  been  found  on  the  shore  near  the  ruins  of  Tyre  a  number  of 
round  holes  cut  in  the  solid  rock,  varying  in  size  from  that  of  an  ordinary 
metal  pot  to  that  of  a  large  boiler.  Within  these,  and  on  the  beach,  were  a 
great  number  of  shells  broken  apparently  by  design.  It  is  hence  supposed 
that  the  animals  were  pounded  in  these  mortars  for  the  purpose  of  extracting 
the  colouring  fluid,  especially  as  Pliny  describes  this  as  being  the  mode  in 
\vhich  the  dye  was  obtained.  The  shells,  when  examined,  proved  to  be  those 
of  Murcx  trunculus,  still  found  abundantly  on  the  neighbouring  beach. 

The  Stromb-Shells  (Strombus)  have  the  siphonal  canal  straight,  or  in- 
flected towards  the  right  side.  The  external  border  of  the  opening  of  these 
shells  expands  with  age,  and  sometimes  spreads  out  into  long  finger-like  pro- 
longations, so  that,  when  they  arive  at  maturity,  their  form  is  very  different 


TUB  ULIBRANCHIA  TA. 


213 


from  that  of  the  young.  Some  species  belonging  to  this  carnivorous  genus 
are  also  remarkable  for  their  great  size,  as,  for  example,  the  common  Conch- 
Shell  (S  trombus  gigas)  of  the  West  Indies,  valued  as  a  chimneypiece  orna- 
ment on  account  of  its  striking  appearance  and  the  beautiful  rosy  hue  of  its 
interior. 

ORDER  TUBULIBRAXCHIATA.* 

In  this  Order  of  Gasteropods  the  shell  takes  the  form  of  a  tube, 
more  or  less  irregular  in  its  shape,  but  always  presenting  a  spiral 
contour  near  its  commencement.  These  tubes  very  much  re- 
semble those  of 
certain  Annelidans 
(Serpulce)t  with 
which  they  were 
long  confounded. 
They  are  generally 
found  entwined  to- 
gether, and  mixed 
up  with  coral  beds. 
As  the  included 
animals  are  thus 
fixed,  they  have  no 
foot ;  but  that  part 
of  their  bodies, 
which,  in  ordinary 
Gasteropods,  con- 
stitutes the  tail,  is 

bent  forward  until  it  reaches  beyond  the  head,  where  it  swells  out 
into  a  protuberance  furnished  with  a  thin  operculum  ;  this  serves 
as  a  door  wherewith  to  close  the  entrance  of  the  tube  when  the 
animal  retreats  into  its  shelter.  The  head  of  these  Mollusks  is 
provided  with  two  tentacula  of  moderate  size,  at  the  bases  of 
which  the  eyes  are  situated  :  the  mouth  is  a  simple  vertical  slit. 
(Fig.  224). 

ORDER  ScuTiBRAxcmATA.f 

The  animals  belonging  to  this  Order  have  their  shells  very 
widely  open,  and  frequently  not  at  all  spiriform,  so  that  they 
cover  the  back,  as  it  were,  with  a  broad  shield. 

The  Sea-ears  (Haliotis]  are  the  most  beautiful  and  richly  ornamented  of 

*  Tubulus,  a  tube;  branchiae,  gil's:  titbc-gilled. 
f  Scutum,  a  s hidd  ;  branchuv,  gi.L • :  shifliied  gitts. 


FIG.  224.—  VERMETTS. 


GASTEROPODA. 


the  group  :  their  shell  is  slightly  spiral  at  its  commencement,  but  rapidly  ex- 
pands, so  as  somewhat  to  resemble  in  its  shape  the  human  ear,  whence  the 
origin  of  the  name.  The  circumference  of  the  foot  and  the  sides  of  the  head 
of  the  living  animal  are  decorated  with  elegant  fringes,  and  the  shell  is  like- 
wise perforated  with  a  row  of  apertures  through  which  gorgeously-coloured 

filaments  are  protruded:  these  aper- 
tures also  serve  for  the  free  admis- 
sion of  water  to  the  branchial  cham- 
ber. The  mouth  is  a  short  proboscis. 
The  Key -hole  Limpets  (Fis- 
snrella)  very  much  resemble  the 
common  limpets  of  our  coast,  and 
in  like  manner  are  provided  with 
a  plain  conical  shell,  without  any 
spire,  which  spreads  over  the  middle 
FH;.  M5.-F1SSUKBLI.A  RETICULATA.  of  their  back.  They  differ  from  the 

limpets,    however,   in    having    the 

shell  perforated  at  its  apex  for  the  purpose  of  admitting  the  water  into  a 
branchial  chamber  in  which  pectinated  gills  are  lodged. 


ORDER  TECTIBRANCHIATA.* 

The  Gasteropods  belonging  to  this  Order  have  their  branchiae 
arranged  along  the  right  side  of  the  body  or  on  the  back  ;  they  are 

always  in  the  form 
of  leaflets  more  or 
less  divided,  but 
not  symmetrical : 
theyare  protected 
by  a  sort  of  roof, 
formed  by  a  pro- 
longation of  the 
mantle.  These 
animals  are  for  the 
most  part  naked 
slugs ;  but  some 
have  a  small  shell 
concealed  in  the 
mantle,  and  others 
We  select  as  an 


226.— SKA-HARE. 


have  a  conspicuous  one  of  considerable  size, 
example  of  this  order 

The  Sea-Hares  (Aplysid]  frequently  found  in  fishermen's  nets.  When 
captured  and  put  into  a  vessel  of  water,  they  have  the  power  of  discharging, 
in  great  abundance,  a  fluid  of  a  rich  purple  hue,  which  quickly  diffuses  its 

*  Tectu?;,  covered  :  branchice,  gills:  cover fil gills. 


PHYLLIDIA. 


215 


colour  through  the  water.  The  sea-hare  is  a  harmless  creature  that  lives 
entirely  upon  sea-weeds  and  fuci ;  nevertheless,  it  was  formerly  dreaded  as  a 
most  potent  poison,  and  strange  tales  are  told  of  the  atrocities  committed  by 
its  agency. 

ORDER  IXFEROBRAXCHIATA.* 

These  Gasteropods  very  much  resemble  slugs  in  their  general 
appearance,  but  their  branchiae  consist  of  leaflets  arranged  like  a 
fringe  along  both  sides  of  the  body,  protected  by  the  border  of 
the  mantle,  which  is  of  a  leathery  texture,  and  without  any  shell ; 
their  mouth  is  a  little  proboscis,  provided  on  each  side  with  a 
short  tentacle  (Fig;.  227). 


ORDER   CvCLOBRANCHIATA.t 

Iii  this  Order  the  gills  consist  of  a  series  of  laminae  or  pyra- 
midal appendages,  extending  quite  round  the  body  beneath  the 
edge  of  the  mantle  (Fig.  228).  It  embraces 

*  Inferus.  beloiv ;  branchiae,  ^i!/s:  jjills  situated  at  the  under  part  of  the  body, 
t  Ki>K\os,  cuclos,  a  circle ;  branchiae,  gill.f. 


2l6 


GASTEROPODA, 


The  Limpets  (Patella},  the  appearance  of  which  is  well  known  to  every 
sea-side  visitor. 


FIG.  228.— LIMPET. 


FIG.  229.— TUFTED  CHITON. 


The  Coat-of-Mail  Shells  (Chiton)  are  of  very  remarkable  structure: 
their  body  is  covered  by  eight  overlapping  shelly  plates,  surrounded  by  a  tough 
leathery  margin,  often  studded  with  little  scales  or  spines  or  hairs,  under  the 
protection  of- which  the  branchiae  are  situated.  The  flexibility  of  their  armour 
is  such,  that  they  are  enabled  to  roll  themselves  up  into  a  ball,  and  their  head 
is  quite  unprovided  either  with  eyes  or  tentacula. 


ORDER  NUDIBRANCHIATA.* 

The  animals  belonging  to  this  Order  are  marine  slugs,  unpro- 
vided with  a  shell,  and  breathing  by  means  of  branchiae  placed 
upon  their  backs,  and  thus  exposed,  naked  and  unprotected,  to 
the  influence  of  the  surrounding  medium  (Fig.  230). 


FIG.  230. — CROWNED  EOLIS. 

Several  species  of  these  naked-gilled  Mollusca  are  common  on 
the  British  coasts.  They  exhibit  a  very  great  diversity  of  form, 
and  an  extraordinary  variety  of  lively  and  beautiful  colours.  The 
gills  are  contractile  into  cavities  on  the  surface  of  the  body,  and 

*  Nudus,  rmcovered ;  branchiae,  gills:  naked-gilled. 


NUDIBRANCHIA  TA. 


2:7 


present,  in  the  living  state,  extremely  interesting  objects,  as  the 
animals  keep  extending  and  withdrawing  them  at  frequent  in- 
tervals. In  some  they  present  the  appearance  of  flowers,  as  in 
Doris  (Fig.  232) ;  in  others  they  are  arborescent,  or  tree-like,  or 


FIG.  231.— TRITOXIA  HOMBERGI. 


FIG.  232. — HORNED  DORIS. 


feathered  like  an  ostrich  plume  ;  and  in  some  they  are  disposed 
in  rows  on  the  sides  of  the  body.  The  greater  number  of  these 
sea-slugs  are  carnivorous,  and  appear  to  be  very  voracious.  They 


F:G.  233.— YOUNG  OF  EOLIS. 


feed  chiefly  upon  zoophytes  and  sponges,  some  adding  to  their 
bill  of  fare  the  gelatinous  Medusae,  that  are  found  floating  near 
them,  while  occasionally  they  have  been  seen  devouring  other 
Nudibranchs. 

The  spawn  of  the  Nudibranchiate  Gasteropod  is  deposited  in 


2 18  GASTEROPODA. 


the  shape  of  a  gelatinous  band,  always  arranged  in  a  more  or  less 
spiral  form,  and  fastened  by  one  of  its  edges  to  corallines  or  the 
under  surface  of  a  stone.  The  eggs  are  minute  and  very  numerous, 
amounting  in  some  species  to  several  thousands.  Before  the 
period  of  exclusion,  the  young  may  be  seen  revolving  by  means 
of  vibratile  cilia,  and  on  escaping  from  the  egg  they  swim  about 
freely  in  the  water  by  the  same  means.  The  embryo  is  extremely 
minute,  and  looks  more  like  a  Rotifer  than  a  Mollusk  ;  moreover, 
to  add  to  its  extraordinary  appearance,  it  is  enclosed  in  a  tran- 
sparent nautilus-like  shell,  provided  with  an  operculum. 

ORDER  HETEROPODA.* 

In  these  Gasteropods  the  foot,  instead  of  forming  a  flat  hori- 
zontal sole,  has  a  vertical  direction,  and  assumes  the  figure  of  a 
compressed  fin,  which  being  moved  by  its  own  muscles  from  right 
to  left,  propels  the  animal  forward,  like  a  sculler  who  works  his 
boat  with  a  single  oar.  In  the  Carinaria  (beautiful  creatures, 
clear  as  crystal  and  painted  with  the  liveliest  colours)  this  ventral 
fin  is  aided  in  its  office  by  some  subsidiary  membranes  situated 


FIG.  234.  — CARIXAHIA. 

upon  the  neck  or  near  the  tail.  Combined,  they  give  these 
animals  a  velocity  superior  to  what  has  been  noticed  in  any  other 
tribe  of  Mollusks.  They  are,  indeed,  quite  remarkable  for  their 
quickness,  propelling  themselves  forward  or  backward,  in  a  straight 
line  or  a  curved  one,  with  equal  facility.  But  the  Heteropods 
need  occasional  repose  and  a  cessation  from  activity;  and  ad- 
mirably is  the  foreseen  want  provided  against.  Where  are  they 
to  rest  ?  where  fix  their  anchor  in  the  world  of  unstable  water 

'•'  £rcpos,  heteros,  of  another  kind  ;  TTOUJ,  ~o5js,  pou.s,  podos,  a  foo.'. 


PTEROPODA.  219 

around  them  ?  They  are  created  to  live  and  are  born  amidst  the 
fields  of  sea-weed,  which  voyagers  describe  with  amazement  as 
covering  leagues  of  sea  within  the  tropics  ;*  and  to  enable  them 
to  attach  themselves  to  the  narrow  leaves  of  this  "  Gulf-weed  " 
(Sargassuin],  they  are  furnished  with  a  small  sucker,  which,  like 
a  cupping-glass,  applied  against  the  surface  of  the  leaf,  suspends 
them  without  exertion.  This  little  sucking  disk  is  situated  on 
the  upper  and  hinder  margin  of  the  fin. — DR.  JOHNSTON. 


CHAPTER  XX. 
SIXTH  CLASS  OF  MOLLUSKS. 

PTEROPODA.f 

THE  Pteropoda  are  of  small  dimensions,  but  met  with  in 
astonishing  quantities,  at  certain  seasons,  in  various  parts 
of  the  ocean.  So  numberless,  indeed,  are  these  little  beings  in 
those  regions  where  they  are  common,  that  the  surface  of  the  sea, 
seems  literally  alive  with  their  gambollings  ;  and  thus  the  store  of 
provisions  necessary  to  render  the  waters  of  the  ocean  habitable 
for  animals  of  higher  grade  in  the  scale  of  life,  is  still  further  in- 
creased. The  great  character  which  distinguishes  this  class  is 
derived  from  the  structure  of  their  locomotive  apparatus.  This  is 
only  adapted  for  swimming,  and  consists  of  two  broad  fleshy  ex- 
pa.nsions,  attached  like  a  pair  of  wings  to  each  side  of  the  neck, 
forming  moveable  fins,  by  the  aid  of  which  these  little  beings  dance 
merrily  among  the  foaming  waves — now  sinking,  and  again  rising 
to  the  surface,  until  some  passing  whale,  opening  its  enormous 
jaws,  engulfs  multitudes  of  such  tiny  prey,  and  terminates  their 
brief  existence. 

The  two  wing-like  expansions,  although  they  externally  appear 
to  be  separate  instruments,  are  in  reality  but  one  organ,  being 
made  up  entirely  of  muscular  bands  that'  pass  right  through  the 

*  The  Gulf-weed  forms  a  floating  continent.  In  steering  towards  the  equator  it  is 
usually  first  observed  in  fields  and  islands  near  the  coast  of  Madeira,  whence  it  spreads 
to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Carribbean  Sea.  After  sweeping  round  these  shores, 
it  escapes  by  the  Gulf  of  Florida,  whence  it  progresses  towards  the  Azores.  There  is 
a  similar  circulation  of  Gulf-weed  in  the  southern  hemisphere. 

•f-  TTTepov,  pteron,  a  iring ;  irovs,  iroSos,  pous,  podos,  afoot:  ti'ing-J 


220 


PTEROPODA. 


neck,  and  spread  out  on  each  side,  in  the  substance  of  the  wing, 
forming  an  apparatus  exactly  comparable  to  the  double-paddled 
oar  with  which  the  Greenlander  so  dexterously  steers  his  kajac  or 
canoe  through  the  very  seas  inhabited  by  the  little  creatures  we 
are  describing.  We  select  as  examples  of  this  Order 

The  Northern  Clio  (Clio  borealis),  an  animal  not  more  than  an  inch  in  length 
(Fig.  235),  but  of  truly  marvellous  structure.  On  each  side  of  the  mouth  are  three 
conical  appendages  that  to  a  superficial  observer  appear  to  be  mere  fleshy  tentacula, 
but  in  reality  they  are  instruments  of  prehension  of  unparalleled  beauty  and  astonishing 
construction.  Each  of  these  six  appendages,  when  examined  with  the  naked  eye,  is  of 
a  reddish  tint  ;  but  when  examined  under  the  microscope  this  colour  is  found  to  be 
dependent  upon  the  presence  of  numerous  minute  isolated  rod  specks,  every  one  of 


FIG.  235. — CYMBULIA  AND  CLIO. 


which,  when  still  more  highly  magnified,  is  found  to  be  a  transparent  cylinder  resem- 
bling the  cell  of  a  Sertularia,  and  containing  within  its  cavity  about  twenty  suckers 
adapted  to  seize  and  hold  minute  prey  :  the  number  of  these  red  specks  is  calculated 
to  be  about  three  thousand  ;  so  that  there  are  at  least  (3000X20X6)  360,000  of  these 
microscopic  suckers  upon  the  head  of  one  Clio — an  apparatus  for  prehension  perhaps 
unparalleled  in  the  animal  creation.  When  not  in  use,  the  appendages  referred  to  are 
withdrawn  and  concealed  by  two  hood-like  expansions  that  completely  cover  and  pro- 
tect the  whole  of  this  delicate  mechanism. 

The  Limacina  helicina  (Fig.  28)  is  another  species  found  in  company  with  the 
above,  in  even  still  more  innumerable  hosts.  It  does  not  materially  differ  from  the 
Clio  in  its  general  structure,  but  its  body  is  enclosed  in  a  transparent  spiral  shell  of  ex- 


CEPHALOPODA.  221 


quisite  delicacy.     This  beautiful  little  Pteropod  uses  its  shell  as  a  boat,  and  by  means 
of  its  wing-like  fins  rows  itself  about  on  the  surface  of  the  water. 

The  Hyalgea  (Fig.  236)  is  an  inhabitant  of  warmer  regions.  Its  shell  is  somewhat 
like  that  of  a  bivalve  without  a  hinge,  the  hinder  part  being  consolidated  and  armed 
with  three  spines.  At  the  sides  are  narrow  fissures,  through  which  membranous  ex- 
pansions are  protnided,  resembling  those  of  the  Clio. 


FIG.  236. — GLASS  SHELLS:  a.  Hyalcea  triden'.ata  ;  b,  C leodora pyramidata . 

The  Cleodora  (Fig.  236)  is  another  exceedingly  delicate  and, beautiful  example. 
The  shell  of  this  little  creature  is  of  glass-like  transparency,  very  fragile,  and  somewhat 
m  the  form  of  a  triangular  pyramid.  The  animal  in  the  dark  is  vividly  luminous,  and 
presents  a  very  striking  appearance  as  it  shines  through  its  pellucid  lantern. 

"The  Pteropods,"  says  Mr.  Godwin  Austen,  "are  the  winged  insects  of  the  sea — 
reminding  us,  in  their  fre'e  circular  movements  and  crepuscular  habits,  of  the  gnats  and 
moths  of  the  atmosphere  :  they  shun  the  light,  and  if  the  sun  is  bright,  you  may  look 
in  vain  for  them  throughout  the  livelong  day.  It  is  only  as  day  declines  that  their  true 
lime  begins  ;  and  thence  onwards,  the  watches  of  the  night  may  be  kept  by  observing 
ilie  contents  of  the  towing-net,  as  the  hours  of  a  summer's  day  may  be  by  the  floral  dial. 
The  Cleodorce  are  the  earliest  risers.  As  the  sun  sets,  Hyalca  gildwa  appears,  darting 
r.bout  as  if  it  had  not  a  moment  to  spare,  and  indeed  its  period  is  brief,  lasting  only  for 
tiie  Mediterranean  twilight.  Then  it  is  that  Hyalua  trispinosa  and  Cleodora  subnla 
come  up.  Some  species  retire  early,  while  others  are  to  be  met  with  only  during  the 
midnight  hour-;  and  in  the  darkest  nights.  There  are,  however,  a  few  of  irregular 
babits,  who  manage  to  keep  it  up  the  whole  night  through.  All,  however,  are  back  to 
their  homes  before  day  surprises  them." 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

SEVENTH  CLASS  OF  MOLLUSKS. 

CEPHALOPODA.* 

FROM  the  strange  combination  of  characters  employed  to 
designate  the  last  and  highest  order  of  the  Mollusca,  the 
student  will,  no  doubt,  be  prepared  to  anticipate  something  re- 

*  Are$a\77,  cephalc,  tJic  Jicad :  TTOI'S,  TroSos,  pous,  podos,  afoot:  head-footed. 


222 


CEPHALOPODS. 


markable  in  their  habits  and  appearance ;  nor  will  his  expecta- 
tions be  disappointed. 

Their  body  is  enclosed  in  a  muscular  sac  or  bag,  which  in 
many  species  is  provided  with  fleshy  fins  that  project  on  each 
side.  Their  head  is  furnished  with  a  pair  of  large  staring  eyes, 
and  surmounted  by  conical  fleshy  tentacles,  of  various  length  in 
different  species,  but  of  great  strength,  capable  of  being  bent  in 
every  direction,  and,  moreover,  armed  with  suckers  or  adhesive 
disks,  whereby  they  become  firmly  fixed  to  any  object  embraced 
in  their  snake-like  folds.  By  means  of  these  "feet"  or  tentacles, 
the  animal  is  enabled  to  seize  upon  its  prey,  to  walk,  and  even  to 
swim.  It  swims  backwards,  and  walks  equally  well  in  any  direc- 
tion, carrying  its  head  close  to  the  ground  and  its  body  upwards. 


FIG.  237.- CUTTLE. 

The  water  taken  in  for  the  purpose  of  respiration  is  forcibly 
ejected  through  a  fleshy  funnel  situated  in  the  front  of  its  neck. 
The  mouth  is  situated  in  the  centre  of  the  circle  of  feet,  and  is 
furnished  with  two  horny  jaws,  resembling  in  their  shape  the  beak 
of  a  parrot.  Within  the  mouth  is  a  tongue,  studded  with  horny 
spines,  whereby  the  food  is  passed  into  the  throat. 

These  animals  are  provided  with  a  peculiar  inky  fluid  of  in- 
tense blackness,  which  they  are  able  to  eject  in  great  abundance 
through  the  siphonal  tube,  thus  darkening  the  surrounding  water 
to  a  considerable  distance  ;  and  their  skin  is  endowed  with  a 
capability  of  changing  its  colour  more  remarkable  than  even  that 
of  the  chameleon. 

The  Cephalopods  are  cruel  and  voracious,  and  from  their 
activity  and  the  various  means  that  they  possess  of  seizing  and 


CUTTLE-FISHES. 


223 


of  holding  their  prey,  are  exceedingly  destructive  to  fishes  and 
Crustaceans  around  our  coasts. 

Their  prehensile  arms  are,  in  the  greater  number  of  species, 
provided  with  suckers,  called  "  acc- 
tabula"  that  act  like  cupping-glasses. 
The  mechanism  for  producing  adhe- 
sion by  means  of  these  wonderful 
organs  is  extremely  curious.  From 
the  margin  of  each  cup  muscular 
fibres  converge  towards  the  centre, 
at  a  short  distance  from  which  they 
leave  a  circular  aperture ;  behind  this 
is  a  false  floor  that  can  be  raised  like 
the  piston  of  a  syringe,  and  thus  pro- 
duce a  complete  vacuum  within  the 
cup.  So  perfect  is  this  mechanism 
that,  while  the  piston  continues  raised, 
it  is  easier  to  tear  away  the  sucker 
from  the  arm  than  to  release  its  hold, 
but  as  soon  as  the  muscular  effort 
raising  the  piston  ceases,  the  vacuum 
produced  by  its  retraction  is  in  an 
instant  destroyed,  and  all  the  suckers 
detach  themselves.* 

Few  spectacles  are  more  wonderful  than  that  presented  "by 
these  animals,  while  alive  and  free  in  their  native  element  : 
changing  their  colours  with  the  rapidity  of  thought,  they  dart 
from  place  to  place  with  amazing  activity  ;  some  species,  indeed, 
cleave  the  water  with  such  rapidity  that  the  eye  can  scarcely 
follow  their  movements.  Sometimes  they  swim  by  means  of 
vigorous  flappings  of  their  arms,  which  are  webbed  like  the  feet 
of  swans.  Sometimes  they  employ  their  fleshy  fins,  or  else  pro- 
pel themselves  backward  by  forcible  and  repeated  ejaculations  of 
water  through  the  tube  or  siphon  placed  in  front  of  their  bodies. 

*  The  tenacity  of  the  grip  of  the  Cephalopod  was  fully  npprec;ated  by  Homer,  but 
the  beauty  of  his  simile  has  been  but  little  understood  by  his  translators": 
"  As  when  the  cuttle-fish  enforced  forsakes 
His  rough  abode,  with  his  adhesive  cups 
He  gripes  the  pebbles  still ; 
So  he,  Ulysses,  with  his  lacerated  grasp 
The  crumbled  stone  retained,  when  from  his  hold 
The  huge  wave  forced  him,  and  he  sank  again." 

HOMER'S  "Odyssey"    Book  V. 


FIG.  238.— STRI- CTURE  OF  SUCKERS 

OF    C'L'TTLE-FlSH. 


224  CEPHALOPODS. 

Several  instances  are  on  record  of  the  occurrence  of  Cephalo- 
pods  of  enormous  size.  Aristotle  speaks  of  a  great  cuttle-fish  five 
fathoms  in  length.  Peron  found  in  the  sea  near  Tasmania  a  speci- 
men the  arms  of  which  measured  six  or  seven  inches  in  diameter. 
Ouoy  and  Gaymard  collected  in  the  Atlantic,  near  the  equator, 
fragments  of  an  enormous  Mollusk,  perhaps  of  the  same  kind, 
whose  weight  was  estimated  at  200  Ibs.  A  cuttle-fish  was  cast 
upon  the  shores  of  Jutland  in  1853,  the  body  of  which  was  cut 
up  by  the  fishermen  for  bait,  and  furnished  loads  for  several 
wheelbarrows  :  a  portion  of  one  of  the  arms  was  as  thick  as  a 
man's  thigh.  Fragmentary  tentacles  of  large  proportions  are 
preserved  in  the  Museum  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  and 
in  that  of  King's  College,  in  London. 

A  specimen  of  gigantic  dimensions  recently  seen  by  the  crew 
of  a  French  man-of-war,  escaped  capture  only  by  leaving  a  part 
of  his  tail  behind  him.  "On  the  3<Dth  of  November,  1861,  the 
French  steamer  Alecton,  being  then  about  forty  leagues,  N.E., 
off  Teneriffe,  fell  in  with  a  gigantic  cuttle-fish,  of  a  brick-red 
colour,  disporting  itself  at  the  surface  of  the  sea.  He  was  hit  by 
several  bullets,  and  at  last  struck  with  a  harpoon  and  seized  by 
a  cord  with  a  slip-knot.  At  this  moment,  however,  when  every 
preparation  was  being  made  to  secure  it,  the  animal  by  a  violent 
effort  tore  away  the  harpoon  from  its  soft  flesh,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  noose  slipped  down  to  its  caudal  end,  where  it  held ;  but 
in  hoisting  the  creature  out  of  the  water,  the  part  thus  seized  broke 
off,  and  only  a  fragment,  weighing  about  46  Ibs.,  was  brought  on 
board.  Both  sailors  and  officers  were  anxious  to  have  a  boat 
lowered  in  order  to  go  in  pursuit  of  the  creature  ;  but  the  captain, 
fearing  that  some  harm  might  happen  to  the  boat's  crew  in  the 
struggle  with  so  novel  an  opponent,  declined,  and  left  the  mutilated 
cuttle-fish  to  its  fate.  The  ship  was  brought  sufficiently  near  to 
enable  one  of  the  officers  to  make  a  drawing  of  it.  Its  length  was 
fifteen  or  eighteen  feet,  and  its  eight  arms,  covered  with  suckers, 
were  estimated  at  five  or  six  feet  long,  its  beak  measured  about  a 
foot  and  a  half  across,  and  its  weight  was  estimated  at  2,000  kilo- 
grammes (above  4,000  Ibs.)." — "  Comptcs  Rcndus"  3Oth  Dec.,  1861. 

The  Common  Poulpe  {Octopus  wdgaris)^  represented  in  Fig.  239,  will  serve  to 
illustrate  the  general  structure  and  habits  of  the  class.  A  single  glance  at  our  engrav- 
ing, representing  one  of  these  animals  ensconced  in  the  entrance  of  his  den,  is  sufficient 
to  convince  us  of  the  very  unamiable  character  of  such  a  monster.  The  giants  and 
ogres  of  romance  were  never  so  fearfully  armed,  or  clothed  by  the  wildest  fiction  with 
so  terrible  an  aspect.  Eminently  carnivorous,  voracious,  and  fierce,  these  animals  feed 
largely  upon  fishes  whose  activity  and  slippery  mail  would  elude  a  less  effective  appa- 


CUTTLE-FISHES. 


225 


ratus  than  is  here  provided  for  their  destruction.  Beneath  the  staring  eyes  that  indicate 
the  creature's  head,  are  spread  eight  strong  and  fleshy  arms,  united  at  their  bases  by  a 
broad  muscular  expansion,'  and  furnished  upon  their  under  surface  with  a  hundred  and 
twenty  pairs  of  powerful  and  tenacious  suckers,  each  of  which  might  be  compared  to  an 
air-pump  in  its  efficiency  and  mode  06  action.  No  sooner  does  the  cuttle-fish,  by  throw- 
ing out  its  long  flexible  arms,  bring  but  a  few  of  its  two  thousand  suckers  in  contact 
with  the  surface  of  its  victim,  than  they  adhere  with  unrelenting  pertinacity,  and  the 
arms  are  swiftly  twined  around  the  struggling  prey,  which  vainly  strives  to  disengage 
itself  from  so  fearful  and  so  fatal  an  embrace.  Their  quickness  of  sight,  and  the  facility 
with  which  they  detach  their  suckers,  is  wonderful.  Mr.  Broderip  attempted  with  a 
hand-net  to  catch  an  Octopus  floating  by,  with  its  long  flexible  arms  entwined  round  a 


AND  SQUID. 


fish  that  it  was  tearing  with  its  sharp  bill.  It  allowed  the  net  to  approach  -.vithin  a  short 
distance  before  relinquishing  its  prey,  when  in  an  instant  it  relaxed  its  thousand  suckers, 
exploded  its  inky  ammunition,  and  rapidly  retreated  under  cover  of  the  cloud  thus 
occasioned,  by  rapid  and  vigorous  strokes  of  its  circular  web.  These  cuttle-fishes  also 
escape  detection  by  a  very  extraordinary  chameleon-like  power  of  changing  colour. 
They  appear  to  vary  their  tints  according  to  the  nature  of  the  ground  over  which  they 
pa>s.  \\~hen  in  deep  water,  their  general  shade  is  brownish  purple  ;  but  when  placed 
on  land  or  in  shallow  water,  this  dark  tint  changes  to  one  of  yellowish  green.  The 
colour,  examined  more  generally,  is  a  French  grey,  with  numerous  minute  spots  of 
bright  yellow.  The  former  of  these  varies  in  intensity,  the  latter  entirely  disappears 
and  appears  again  by  turns.  These  changes  are  effected  in  such  a  manner,  that  colours, 
varying  in  tint  between  a  hyacinth-red  and  a  chestnut-brown,  are  continually  passing 
over  the  body. 

13 


226  CEPHALOPODS. 


"  I  was  much  amused  by  the  various  arts  to  escape  detection  used  by  one  individual, 
which  seemed  fully  aware  that  I  was  watching  it.  Remaining  for  a  time  motionless,  it 
would  then  stealthily  advance  for  an  inch  or  two,  like  a  cat  after  a  mouse,  sometimes 
changing  its  colour  ;  it  thus  proceeded  till,  having  gained  a  deeper  part,  it  darted  away, 
leaving  a  dusky  train  of  ink  to  hide  the  hole  into  which  it  had  crawled." — DARWIN, 
"  Voyage  of  the  Beagle" 

The  Calamaries  (Loligo}.  In  the  Octopus  above  described  the  arms  or 
tentacles  are  only  eight  in  number,  and  all  nearly  of  equal  dimensions  ;  but 
in  the  Calamaries  their  number  is  increased  to  ten,  the  additional  pair  being 
lengthened  into  slender  cables,  at  the  end  of  which  suckers  are  grouped  to- 
gether upon  flat  disks,  and  thus  serve  the  purpose  of  anchors  whereby  the 
animal  attaches  itself  to  the  rocks,  and  rides  securely  in  a  tempestuous  sea. 
The  general  form  of  the  body  is  comparatively  slender,  and  towards  the  hinder 
extremity  is  provided  with  a  pair  of  triangular  fins,  wherewith  it  is  enabled  to 
shoot  through  the  water  like  an  arrow.  Embedded  in  the  fleshy  substance  of 
the  back  is  a  long  transparent  plate  of  horn,  which  in  shape  bears  some  re- 
semblance to  a  pen  :  it  is  to  the  presence  of  this  curious  support  that  these 
animals  are  indebted  for  their  name  (calamus,  a  pen) ;  they  are  likewise 
called  "pen- fishes." 

The  Squids  (Loligo  piscatoruiii},  or  as  they  are  called  by  our  fishermen, 
"sleeves,"  or  "hose-fish,"  are  of  great  value  as  a  bait.  With  these  cuttles, 
indeed,  one-half  of  all  the  cod  taken  at  Newfoundland  is  caught.  They  occur 
in  vast  numbers,  at  different  times  on  different  coasts,  and  their  large  shoals 
present  a  curious  appearance.  When  they  approach,  hundreds  of  vessels  are 
ready  for  their  capture.  At  some  seasons  as  many  as  400  to  500  sail  of 
English  and  French  ships  are  engaged  in  the  cuttle-fish  fishery.  During 
violent  gales,  hundreds  of  tons  are  often  thrown  up  together  in  beds  on  the 
flat  beaches,  the  decay  of  which  spreads  an  intolerable  effluvium  around. 
They  are  only  used  for  bait,  and  instead  of  nets  being  employed  for  their 
capture,  they  are  "jigged"  by  means  of  an  instrument  composed  of  a  number 
of  hooks  made  for  the  purpose.  The  cod  is  in  best  condition  after  having  fed 
on  the  squids.  Calamaries  are  very  prolific  ;  their  eggs  are  deposited  in  the 
form  of  numerous  lengthened  bands,  radiating  from  a  common  centre,  and 
spreading  every  way  into  a  circular  form :  each  egg  is  of  a  glassy  transpa- 
rency, and  the  young  animal  may  be  very  distinctly  observed  in  each  many 
days  before  the  period  of  their  exclusion.  These  groups  of  eggs  are  often 
seen  floating  on  the  surface  of  the  sea,  and  are  occasionally  thrown  on  shore. 
The  whole  group  sometimes  measures  more  than  a  foot  in  diameter,  and  from 
its  general  appearance  might  easily  be  mistaken  for  a  large  jelly-fish 

The  Hooked  Squids  (Onychoteuthis)  in  their  general  form  and  structure 
resemble  the  Calamaries  ;  but  the  suckers,  which  arm  the  expanded  disks  at 
the  end  of  their  long  cable-like  arms,  are  each  of  them  provided  with  a  strong 
and  sharp  hook,  composed  of  horny  substance,  that  projects  backwards,  and 
materially  increases  the  tenacity  of  their  grasp. 

The  Cuttle-Fishes,  properly  so  called  (Sepia\  in  addition  to  the  sucker- 
bearing  arms  of  the  Poulpe,  are  furnished  with  the  long  rope-like  appendages 
of  the  Calamary.  The  shape  of  the  cuttle  is  round  and  robust,  and  its  body 
is  furnished  with  a  fleshy  fin  running  along  the  entire  length  of  each  side. 

The  Common  Cuttle  (Sefiia  officinalis],  numerous  on  our  coasts,  is  about  a 
foot  in  length.  The  colour  is  a  dirty  white,  but  if  examined  when  alive,  there  may  be 
observed  a  sort  of  network  of  lines  of  a  reddish  or  purplish  hue  playing  over  the  surface, 
the  markings  continually  changing  their  form  and  position,  so  as  to  cause  a  great  variety 


SEPIA. 


of  tints  to  play  over  the  body  of  the  animal,  something  like  the  flickering  of  a  lambent 
flame.  The  changes  of  colour  thus  produced  are  quite  wonderful.  "Although  com- 
mon," says  Mr.  Darwin,  "in  the  pools  of  water  left  by  the  returning  tide,  these  animals 
are  not  easily  caught.  By  means  of  their  long  arms  and  suckers  they  can  drag  their 
bodies  into  very  narrow  crevices,  and  when  thus  fixed,  it  requires  great  force  to  remove 
them.  At  other  times  they  dart,  tail  first,  with  the  rapidity  of  an  arrow,  from  one  side 
of  the  pool  to  the  other,  at  the  same  instant  discolouring  the  water  with  a  dark  chestnut- 
brown  ink." 

The  shell  of  the  cuttle-fish,  or  "Cuttle-bone"  as  it  is  generally  called  (Fig.  240),  is  a 


FlG.  240.— CUTTLE-SIIELL. 


FlG.   241. — CUTTLE-FISH   AND    EGGS. 


very  curious  structure.  During  life  it  is  enclosed  in  a  cavity  of  the  mantle,  wherein  it 
lies  quite  loose  and  unattached  :  it  is  of  an  oval  shape,  and  so  light  and  buoyant  as  to 
constitute  a  most  elegant  float,  that  doubtless  materially  facilitates  the  movements  of 
this  otherwise  unwieldy  animal. 

Like  all  the  other  naked  Cephalopods,  the  cuttle  is  remarkable  for  the  power  of  eject- 
ing, in  large  quantities,  a  black  and  inky  fluid  ;  this  is  contained  in  a  bag,  variously 
situated  in  different  species,  and  can  be  spouted  out  at  the  will  of  the  animal  in  surpris- 
ing abundance,  diffusing  an  impenetrable  opacity  that  extends  to  a  distance  of  many  feet. 
Under  the  concealment  thus  obtained,  the  cuttle-fish  darts  away  from  his  foes,  like  one 
of  Homer  s  heroes,  protected  by  the  interposition  of  a  favouring  cloud.  This  ink,  dried 
and  prepared,  is  the  "sepia"  employed  by  artists. 

The  eggs  of  the  Sepia  are  frequently  seen  on  the  sea-beach.  They  bear  no  small  re- 
semblance to  a  bunch  of  grapes,  being  accumulated  in  clusters,  adhering  to  each  other 
by  slender  footstalks  ;  they  are,  moreover,  very  nearly  of  the  size  and  colour  of  that 
fruit  (Fig.  241). 

About  the  shores  of  the  Eastern  Mediterranean,  the  common  Sepia  officinalis  is  so 
abundant  that  the  cuttle-bones  may  be  seen  heaped  by  the  waves  into  a  ridge  that 
fringes  the  coast  for  miles.  "As  in  ancient  times,"  says  Professor  Forbes,  "these 
Mollusks  still  constitute  a  valuable  part  of  the  food  of  the  poor,  by  whom  they  are 
mostly  used.  One  of  the  most  striking  spectacles  at  night,  on  the  coast  of  the  yEgean, 
is  to  see  the  numerous  torches  glancing  along  the  shores,  and  reflected  by  the  still  and 


228 


CEPHALOPODS. 


clear  sea,  borne  by  poor  fishermen  puddling  as  silently  as  possible  over  the  rocky  shal- 
lows in  search  of  cuttle-fish,  which,  when  seen  lying*  beneath  the  water  in  wait  for  his 
prey,  they  dexterously  spear,  ere  the  creature  has  time  to  dart  with  the  rapidity  of  an 
arrow  from  the  weapon  about  to  transfix  his  soft  but  firm  body." 

The  Argonaut  (Argonauta).  The  animal  of  the  Argonaut  is  in  all  re- 
spects a  Poulpe,  the  arms  of  which  are  furnished  with  two  rows  of  suckers  ; 
but  the  hinder  pair,  those  nearest  the  back  of  the  animal,  are  expanded  into 
a  broad  membrane.  The  most  remarkable  feature  in  their  economy,  however, 


FIG.  242. — THE  PAPER  NAUTILUS  (Argonauta  Argo).     Fig.  i,  Swimming  towards  the  point  a; 
2,  walking  on  the  bottom  ;  3,  contracted  within  its  shell,  which  is  partly  embraced  by  the  arms. 

is  that  they  reside  in  a  thin  calcareous  shell,  symmetrically  channelled  and 
spirally  twisted  at  one  extremity,  but  having  the  last  whorl  of  the  spire  so 
capacious  that  it  resembles  a  beautiful  boat. 

It  was,  indeed,  to  this  Cephalopod  that  the  ancients  assigned  the  honour 
of  having  first  suggested  to  mankind  the  possibility  of  traversing  the  sea  in 
ships  ;  and  nothing  could  be  more  elegant  than  the  frail  bark  in  which  the 
Argonaut  was  supposed  to  skim  over  the  waves,  hoisting  sails  to  the  breeze, 
and  steering  its  course  by  the  assistance  of  oars  provided  for  the  purpose.  It 
is  almost  a  thankless  office  to  dispel  so  pretty  a  fiction :  modern  researches, 
however,  serve  to  show  that  its  sailing  capabilities  have  been  much  exagge- 
rated. The  Argonaut  can  certainly  raise  itself  from  the  bottom  and  sport 
about  the  surface  of  the  water ;  but  this  is  simply  effected  by  the  ordinary 
means  used  by  Calamaries  and  Cephalopods  in  general,  namely,  by  admitting 
the  sea-water  into  its  body,  and  then  ejecting  it  in  forcible  streams  from  its 
funnel,  so  as  to  produce  a  retrograde  motion,  which  is  sometimes  very  rapid. 
Its  usual  movements  are,  however,  confined  to  crawling  at  the  bottom  with 
its  head  downwards,  and  in  this  way  it  creeps,  carrying  its  shell  upon  its 
back,  as  represented  in  our  figure.  (Fig.  242,  2.) 

The  Nautilus  (Nautilus  Pompilius).     Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  of 


NAUTILUS. 


229 


all  the  Cephalopods  is  the  Nautilus,  the  inhabitant  of  a  chambered  shell, 
which  is  sufficiently  common — 

"  A  shell  of  ample  range,  and  light 

As  the  pearly  car  of  Amphitrite, 

"Which  sportive  dolphins  drew." 

Externally,  this  shell  presents  nothing  remarkable  except  the  elegance  of  its 
shape  ;  but  on  making  a  section  of  it,  as  represented  in  Fig.  243,  its  cavity  is 
found  to  be  partitioned  off  by  numerous  shelly  plates  into  various  chambers, 
in  the  last  and  largest  of  which  the  body  of  the  animal  is  lodged.  A  long 
tube,  or  siphuncle,  partly  calcareous,  partly  membranous,  passes  through  all 
the  compartments  quite  to  the  end  of  the  series.  This  membranous  siphuncle 
is  continued  into  the  animal,  and  terminates  in  a  cavity  contained  within  its 
body,  which  is  in  free  communication  with  the  exterior. 


FIG.  243. — PEARLY  NAUTILUS  (wi.h  tJie  sJiell in  section}. 

Various  conjectures  have  been  indulged  in  relative  to  the  end  answered  by 
this  chambered  condition  of  the  shell.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  chambers 
might  be  filled  with  air  generated  by  the  nautilus,  and  thus  made  so  buoyant, 
tli at  the  specific  gravity  of  the  animal  should  nearly  correspond  with  that  of 
the  surrounding  medium,  and  that  acting  in  the  manner  of  the  swimming- 
bladder  of  a  fish,  the  creature  would  float  or  sink,  as  the  contained  air  was 
alternately  rarefied  or  compressed.  Should  this  supposition  be  true,  it  would 
seem  probable  that  the  simple  retraction  of  the  muscular  head  into  its  shell 
would  cause  the  needful  compression  of  the  air  in  this  singular  float,  and  allow 
the  nautilus  to  sink  to  the  bottom,  while  the  protrusion  ot  its  arms,  by  talcing 
off  the  pressure,  and  thus  allowing  of  the  expansion  of  the  confined  air,  would 
give  every  needful  degree  of  buoyancy,  even  sufficient  to  permit  the  Mollusk 
to  rise  like  a  balloon  to  the  top  of  the  sea. 

The  characteristic  feature  in  the  nautilus  is  the  conversion  of  the  sucker- 
bearing  arms  of  other  Cephalopods  into  an  apparatus  of  sensitive  tentacula, 


2-0  VERTEBRATA. 


quite  destitute  of  suckers.  Its  gills  or  branchias  are  four  in  number  instead 
of  two,  the  head  is  covered  with  a  strong  leathery  hood,  which,  when  the 
animal  retires  into  its  shell,  closes  the  orifice  like  a  door.  In  place  of  the 
eight  sucker-bearing  arms  of  the  Poulpe,  there  are  forty  tentacular  appendages, 
which  can  be  protruded  or  retracted  at  pleasure,  and  the  mouth  is  surrounded 
with  a  series  of  tentacles  still  more  numerous.  The  nautilus  is,  moreover, 
unprovided  with  an  ink-bag  ;  its  beak  is  thick  and  of  stony  hardness,  appa- 
rently adapted  to  crush  shells  or  corals,  which  most  probably  constitute  its 
ordinary  food. 

The  Nautili  are  not  found  in  any  great  depth  of  water,  but  principally  in- 
habit the  reefs  near  which  their  food  is  most  abundant.  They  creep  about 
these  reefs,  with  their  shell  uppermost,  like  a  snail,  and  devour  crabs  and 
other  Crustaceans  that  come  in  their  way,  or  they  return  and  remain  in  a  chasm 
of  the  rock,  with  their  numerous  tentacles  spread  out  in  all  directions,  wait- 
ing for  prey  to  approach  near  enough  to  be  captured.  The  feelers  are  very 
numerous,  and  evidently  endowed  with  a  keen  sense  of  touch,  but  are  quite 
destitute  of  the  sucking  disks  so  remarkable  in  the  cuttle-fish.  When  at  the 
surface  of  the  water,  the  Nautilus  Pompilius  drifts  with  the  current  or  breeze ; 
its  navigation  is  passive,  or  at  most  influenced  by  the  jets  of  water  expelled 
occasionally  through  the  funnel.  The  natives  of  the  New  Hebrides,  New 
Caledonia,  and  the  Fiji  groups  of  islands  capture  it  and  use  it  as  an  article 
of  food.  When  the  water  is  smooth,  so  that  the  bottom  at  several  fathoms 
of  depth  can  be  distinctly  seen,  the  fisherman  in  his  canoe  scrutinizes  the 
sands  and  the  coral  rocks  to  discover  the  animal  in  its  favourite  haunts. 


CHAPTER   XXII. 
VERTEBRATE  ANIMALS. 

THE  second  grand  division  of  the  animal  creation  is  com- 
posed of  four  great  classes,  closely  allied  to  each  other  in 
the  main  features  of  their  organization,  and  possessing  in  common 
a  general  type  of  structure,  clearly  recognizable  in  every  member 
of  the  extensive  series,  although,  of  course,  modified  in  accordance 
with  the  endless  diversity  of  circumstances  under  which  particular 
races  are  destined  to  exist. 

The  immeasurable  realms  of  the  ocean,  the  rivers,  the  lakes 
and  streams,  the  fens  and  marshy  places  of  the  earth,  the  frozen 
precincts  of  the  poles,  and  the  torrid  regions  of  the  equator,  have 
all  appropriate  occupants,  more  favoured  as  regards  their  capacity 
tor  enjoyment,  and  more  largely  endowed  with  strength  and 
intelligence,  than  any  which  have  hitherto  occupied  our  attention, 
and  gradually  rising  higher  and  higher  in  their  attributes  until 
they  conduct  us  at  last  to  Man  himself. 

Pishes,  restricted  by  their  mode  of  respiration  to  an  aquatic 


VERTEBRATE  ANIMALS  231 

life,  are  connected,  through  amphibious  beings  that  present  almost 
imperceptible  gradations  of  development,  with  terrestrial  and  air- 
breathing  Reptiles ;  these,  progressively  endowed  with  greater 
perfection  of  structure  and  increased  powers,  slowly  conduct  us 
to  the  active  and  hot-blooded  Birds,  fitted  by  their  strength  and 
by  the  vigour  of  their  movements  to  an  aerial  existence.  From 
the  feathered  tribes  of  Vertebrata,  the  transition  to  the  still  more 
intelligent  and  highly-endowed  Mammals  is  effected  with  equal 
facility,  so  that  the  zoologist  finds,  to  his  astonishment,  that 
throughout  this  division  of  animated  nature,  composed  of  crea- 
tures widely  differing  among  themselves  in  form  and  habits,  a 
series  of  beings,  unbroken  as  regards  their  physical  organization, 
is  distinctly  traceable. 

The  first  grand  character  that  distinguishes  the  Vertebrate 
classes  is  the  possession  of  an  internal  jointed  skeleton,  which  is 
endowed  with  vitality,  nourished  by  blood-vessels,  capable  of 
growth,  and  which  undergoes  a  perpetual  renovation  by  the  re- 
moval and  replacement  of  the  substances  that  enter  into  its 
composition. 

In  the  lowest  tribes  of  Vertebrata,  the  texture  of  the  internal 
framework  of  the  body  is  permanently  cartilaginous,  and  it  con- 
tinues through  life  in  a  flexible  and  consequently  feeble  condition ; 
but  as  greater  strength  becomes  needful,  in  order  to  sustain  more 
active  and  forcible  movements,  earthy  particles  are  deposited  in 
the  interstices  of  the  cartilaginous  substance,  and,  as  these  accu- 
mulate, additional  firmness  is  bestowed  upon  the  skeleton,  until  it 
becomes  converted  into  perfect  bone. 

The  complete  skeleton  of  a  Vertebrate  animal  may  be  con- 
sidered as  being  composed  of  several  sets  of  bones,  employed  for 
different  purposes,  consisting  of  a  central  portion,  the  basis  and 
support  of  the  rest,  and  of  various  appendages  derived  from  or 
connected  with  the  central  part.  The  centre  of  the  whole  osseous 
fabric  is  generally  made  up  of  a  series  of  distinct  pieces  arranged 
along  the  axis  of  the  body;  and  this  part  of  the  skeleton  is  invari- 
ably present ;  but  the  superadded  appendages,  being  employed  in 
different  animals  for  very  various  and  distinct  purposes,  present 
the  greatest  diversity  of  form,  and  are  many  of  them  wanting  in 
any  given  genus;  so  that  a  really  complete  skeleton,  that  is,  a 
skeleton  made  of  all  the  pieces  which  might  normally  enter  into 
its  composition,  does  not  exist,  inasmuch  as  it  is  owing  to  the 
deficiency  of  some  portions,  and  the  development  of  others  in 
particular  races,  that  we  must  ascribe  all  the  endless  diversity  of 


23  2  VERTEBRATA. 

form  and  mechanism  so  conspicuously  met  with  in  this  great 
division  of  the  animal  world. 

The  nervous  system  of  the  Vertebrates  consists  of  the  brain 
contained  within  the  cavity  of  the  skull,  continued  from  which,  and 
lodged  in  a  canal  formed  by  the  back-bone,  is  the  spinal  marrow 
or  spinal  cord,  whence  are  derived,  at  intervals,  symmetrical  pairs 
of  nerves  :  these  escape  from  the  spinal  canal  by  appropriate  ori- 
fices, situated  between  the  different  bones  of  the  vertebral  column, 
and  are  distributed  to  the  voluntary  muscles,  and  to  the  integu- 
ment of  the  two  sides  of  the  body,  thus  constituting  the  medium 
whereby  the  intimations  of  the  will  are  communicated  to  every 
part,  and  information  received  from  the  external  world.  The 
nervous  system  may  thus  be  compared  to  an  electric  telegraph, 
of  which  the  brain  is  the  central  office,  and  the  nerves  the  wires, 
along  which  travel  with  inconceivable  rapidity  the  various  com- 
mands and  reports  from  all  parts  of  the  complex  system. 

With  the  increased  development  of  the  nervous  system  in  the 
Vertebrate  classes,  the  organs  of  the  senses  assume  a  proportionate 
perfection  of  structure.  The  eyes,  now  invariably  two  in  number, 
are  lodged  in  cavities  formed  for  their  reception  in  the  bony 
framework  of  the  face.  The  auditory  apparatus,  of  which  only 
rudiments  exist  in  the  lower  animals,  gradually  becomes  more 
and  more  completely  developed.  Organs  of  smell  of  variable 
construction  are  generally  present.  The  tongue  becomes  slowly 
adapted  to  appreciate  and  discriminate  savours,  and  the  sense  of 
touch  is  especially  conferred  upon  organs  of  different  kinds  pecu- 
liarly fitted  to  exercise  the  faculty.  Thus,  with  increased  intelli- 
gence, higher  capabilities  of  enjoyment  are  allotted,  and  sagacity 
developes  itself  in  proportion  as  the  nervous  centres  expand. 

The  blood  of  all  the  Vertebrate  races  is  red,  and  contains  micro- 
scopic corpuscles  of  variable  form  and  dimensions  in  different 
animals.  In  the  class  of  fishes,  owing  to  the  as  yet  imperfect 
condition  of  the  respiratory  apparatus,  the  temperature  of  the 
body  is  scarcely  higher  than  that  of  the  surrounding  medium; 
and  even  in  reptiles,  such  is  the  languid  condition  of  the  circu- 
lation, and  the  incomplete  manner  in  which  the  blood  is  exposed 
to  the  renovating  influence  of  oxygen,  that  the  standard  of  animal 
heat  is  still  extremely  low  ;  but  in  the  higher  classes,  the  birds 
and  mammals,  the  effect  of  respiration  is  increased  to  the  utmost, 
and  pure  arterial  blood  being  thus  abundantly  distributed  to  all 
parts,  heat  is  more  rapidly  generated,  the  warmth  of  the  body 
becomes  considerably  increased,  and  such  animals  are  perma- 


VERTEBRATE  ANIMALS. 


nently  maintained  at  a  higher  temperature  than  that-  of  the 
medium  in  which  they  live.  Hence  the  distinction  generally  made 
between  the  Hot-blooded  and  the  Cold-blooded  Vertebrates. 

The  variations  in  the  temperature  of  the  blood  above  alluded 
to  are,  moreover,  the  cause  of  other  important  differences,  ob- 
servable in  the  clothing,  habits,  and  instincts  of  these  creatures. 

To  retain  a  high  degree  of  animal  heat  necessarily  requires  a 
warm  and  thick  covering  of  some  non-conducting  material,  and 
consequently  in  the  hair,  wool,  and  feathers  of  the  warm-blooded 
tribes,  we  at  once  recognize  the  provision  made  by  Nature  for 
preventing  an  undue  expenditure  of  the  vital  warmth.  Such  in- 
vestments would  be  but  ill  adapted  to  the  inhabitants  of  a  watery 
medium  ;  and  consequently  the  fishes,  destined  to  an  aquatic  life, 
or  the  amphibious  reptile,  doomed  to  frequent  the  mud  and  slime 
of  the  marsh,  are  deprived  of  such  incumbrances,  and  clothed  in 
a  scaly  or  slippery  covering,  more  fitted  to  their  habits,  and 
equally  in  accordance  with  the  diminished  temperature  of  their 
blood. 

Still  more  remarkable  is  the  effect  of  mere  exaltation  of  animal 
heat  upon  the  instincts  and  affections  of  the  different  races  of  the 
Vertebrata.  The  cold-blooded  fishes,  absolutely  unable  to  assist 
in  the  maturation  of  their  progeny,  are  content  to  cast  their  spawn 
into. the  water,  and  remain  utterly  careless  of  the  offspring  to  be 
derived  from  it.  The  chilly  reptile,  nearly  as  incapable  of  appre- 
ciating the  pleasures  connected  with  maternal  care,  is  instructed 
to  leave  her  eggs  exposed  to  the  genial  warmth  of  the  sun,  until 
the  included  young  escape.  But  no  sooner  does  the  vital  heat  of 
the  parent  become  sufficient  for  the  purposes  designed  by  Nature, 
than  all  the  sympathies  of  parental  fondness  become  developed, 
all  the  delights  connected  with  paternity  and  maternity  are  super- 
added  to  other  enjoyments  ;  and  the  bird,  as  she  patiently  per- 
forms the  business  of  incubation,  or  tenderly  watches  over  her 
newly-hatched  brood,  derives  a  pleasure  from  the  performance  of 
the  duties  imposed  upon  her,  second  only  to  that  enjoyed  by  the 
mammiferous  mother,  who  from  her  own  breast  supplies  the 
nutriment  prepared  for  the  support  of  her  infant  progeny. 


234  FISHES. 

CHAPTER   XXIII. 

FIRST  CLASS  OF  VERTEBRATE  ANIMALS. 
FISHES. 

MORE  than  two-thirds  of  the  surface  of  our  globe  is  covered 
by  the  sea :  continents  and  islands  are  everywhere  inter- 
sected by  rivers  and  overspread  with  lakes  and  ponds,  thus  pre- 
senting an  aggregate  of  waters  so  considerable  as  far  to  exceed 
the  dry  land  in  extent,  and  affording  space  for  the  existence  of 
animated  beings,  by  no  means  inferior,  in  number  or  variety  of 
species,  to  those  which  inhabit  the  earth. 

At  first  sight,  we  might  suppose  that  the  watery  element 
afforded  little  diversity,  and  that  the  various  races  of  fishes 
could  as  well  inhabit  one  locality  as  another.  The  sea,  however, 
in  different  latitudes  offers  great  differences  of  temperature,  espe- 
cially in  the  vicinity  of  coasts,  some  of  which,  exposed  to  the  full 
influence  of  a  burning  sun,  reflect  intolerable  heat,  whilst  others, 
covered  with  snow — regions  of  ice  and  frost — exhibit  a  perpetual 
winter.  Vast  lakes  are  raised  to  considerable  elevations,  and 
from  their  glacier-barred  sides  the  rivers  stream  with  icy  coldness. 
The  rivers  and  the  lakes  are  all  fresh  water,  light  and  pure ;  the 
seas  are  salt,  and  thus  of  greater  density ;  some  waters  are  clear 
and  limpid,  others  are  agitated  by  continual  currents,  whirled  in 
cascades,  or  hurried  on  in  ceaseless  torrents  :  the  crystal  fountain, 
and  the  muddy  marsh,  and  all  the  shades  of  difference  between 
these  extremes,  present  so  many  climates,  all  of  which  require 
creatures  of  different  habits  and  endowed  with  different  faculties. 
We  need,  therefore,  be  no  longer  astonished  at  the  infinite  variety 
in  the  forms  and  endowments  of  the  finny  tribes,  or  surprised  that 
some  of  them  are  of  shapes  that  to  our  ignorance  appear  mon- 
strous and  deformed,  while  others  are  very  paragons  of  elegance 
and  beauty.  Many  fishes,  indeed,  are  adorned  by  the  hand  of 
Nature  with  every  kind  of  embellishment — variety  in  their  forms, 
elegance  in  their  proportions,  diversity  and  vivacity  in  their 
colours ;  nothing  is  wanting  to  attract  the  attention  of  mankind. 
The  splendour  of  every  metal,  the  blaze  of  every  gem,  glitter 
upon  their  surface ;  iridescent  colours,  breaking  and  reflecting  in 
bands,  in  spots,  in  angles,  or  in  undulating  lines  always  regular  or 
symmetrical,  graduating  or  contrasting  with  admirable  effect  and 
harmony,  flash  over  their  sides  :  for  whom  have  they  received 


FISHES. 


235 


such  gifts,  they  who  at  most  can  barely  perceive  each  other  in 
the  twilight  of  the  deep,  and  even  if  they  could  see  distinctly, 
what  species  of  pleasure  can  they  derive  from  such  combinations  ? 

The  teeth  of  fishes  are  very  numerous,  and  are  attached  to 
almost  every  one  of  the  bones  that  enter  into  the  composition  of 
the  mouth.  They  are  generally  simple  spines,  curved  back- 
wards ;  but  innumerable  modifications  of  structure  occur.  Thus 
the  teeth  of  the  deadly  shark  are  flat  and  lancet-like,  the  cutting 
edges  being  notched  like  a  saw ;  the  front  teeth  of  the  flounder 
are  compressed  plates;  some,  as  the  wrasse,  have  flat  grinding 
teeth,  and  others, 
as  the  genus 
Chrysophrys, 
have  convex 
teeth,  so  nume- 
rous and  so  close- 
ly packed  over  a 
broad  surface,  as 
to  resemble  the 
paving-stones  of 
a  street  The 
beautiful  Chaeto- 

dons  of  warm  climates  have  teeth  which  resemble  bristles,  and 
these  are  set  close  together  like  the  hairs  of  a  brush ;  while  the 
perch  of  our  own  rivers  has  them  still  more  slender,  minute,  and 
numerous,  so  as  to  resemble  the  pile  of  velvet.  Another  of  our 
well-known  fishes,  the  bold  and  fierce  pike,  is  armed  with  teeth 
scarcely  less  formidable  in  size,  form,  and  sharpness  than  the 
canines  of  a  carnivorous  quadruped.  In  number,  also,  there  is 
L^reat  variety.  The  pike,  the  perch,  the  cat-fish,  and  many  others, 
have  their  mouth  crowded  with  innumerable  teeth  ;  the  carp  and 
the  roach  have  only  a  fe\v  strong  teeth  in  the  throat,  and  a  single 
flat  one  above,  while  the  sturgeon,  the  pipe-fish,  and  the  sand- 
lance  are  entirely  toothless. 

The  fins  of  fishes  afford  important  characters  whereby  the  dif- 
ferent races  are  distinguished.  Some  of  them  are  vertical,  con- 
stituting a  kind  of  keel  and  rudder.  Those  on  the  back  are 
named  dorsals,  those  behind  the  vent  and  under  the  tail  anals, 
and  at  the  extremity  of  the  tail  caudal  fins.  These  differ  in  their 
number,  size,  and  the  nature  of  the  rays  that  support  them  : 
sometimes  they  are  spinous,  and  sometimes  soft  and  jointed. 
The  remainder  of  the  fins  are  double,  or  form  pairs,  and  repre- 


FIG.  244. — SKELETON  OF  HADDOCK. 


236 


FISHES. 


sent  the  limbs  of  other  classes  of  Vertebrate  animals.  Those 
corresponding  to  the  arms  or  wings  are  called  pectorals,  and  are 
invariably  fixed  behind  the  gills ;  but  those  which  represent  the 
feet,  named  ventrals,  may  be  placed  either  forwards,  beneath  the 
throat,  or  more  or  less  backwards,  as  far  as  the  commencement  of 
the  tail :  both  may  differ  in  size,  in  the  quality  of  the  fin-rays,  in 
their  number  and  structure,  or  one  or  both  pairs  may  be  want- 
ing. Eels,  for  example,  have  no  ventrals.  Muraenae  have  neither 
ventrals  nor  pectorals,  and  there  are  fishes  that  have  no  fins  at  all. 
The  food  of  fishes  consists  principally  of  animal  matter.  Those 
that  inhabit  fresh  waters  live  upon  worms,  Mollusks,  the  larvae  of 
water-insects,  or  such  flies  as  play  or  alight  upon  the  surface ; 
others  feed  on  reptiles  and  small  quadrupeds.  The  marine  kinds 
often  devour  Crustaceans,  star-fishes,  and  Mollusks,  and  some, 
both  of  fresh  and  salt  waters,  live  on  vegetables.  But  the  great 
majority  prey  upon  each,  other — the  larger  devouring  the  less, 
these  devouring  others  inferior  to  them  in  size,  and  so  on. 

The  armour  in  which  most  fishes  are  encased  is  well  worthy  of 

our  admiration.  In  some  spe- 
cies, as  the  pipe-fishes  and  SQS.- 
horses(Syngnatkida!)  the  body 
is  covered  with  strong  bony 
plates :  these  in  the  trunk-fish 
(Ostracion)  are  so  firmly  sol- 
dered together  as  to  form  a 
box,  through  openings  in 
which  the  tail  and  fins  pro- 
ject. The  skin  of  the  shark  is 
covered  with  minute  spines, 
felt  to  be  rough  and  rasp-like 
if  the  hand  be  gently  passed 
over  them  from  the  tail  to- 
wards the  head,  but  are  imperceptible  if  rubbed  in  the  contrary 
direction.  The:  most  common  form  of  a  fish's  covering,  however, 
is  that  of  separate  scales,  each  embedded  in  a  fold  of  the  skin  on 
the  margin  next  the  head,  and  overlapping  its  successor  with  the 
opposite  edge.  These  scales  vary  in  their  form,  those  from  diffe- 
rent parts  of  the  body  not  being  quite  alike  even  in  the  same  fish. 
The  characters  available  for  the  classification  of  fishes  are  thus 
derivable  from  very  various  sources,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  follow- 
ing tabular  view  of  their  arrangement,  according  to  the  system 
adopted  by  Cuvier : 


FIG.  245. — SCALES  OF  FISHES. 


FISHES. 


237 


238  FISHES. 


DIVISION  I.    OSSEOUS  FISHES. 
SPINY-FINNED  FISHES.    ORDER  ACANTHOPTERYGIL* 

In  the  Spiny-finncd  fishes,  the  first  fin-rays  of  the  back  arc 
always  bony  and  spinous.  When  there  are  two  dorsal  fins,  these 
spiny  rays  only  exist  in  the  front  one,  and  when  there  is  but  one, 
they  sustain  at  least  its  anterior  portion,  or  sometimes  are  entirely 
free  and  separate.  Generally  there  is  also  a  bony  ray  to  each 
ventral  fin,  and  frequently  the  anal  fin  has  some  of  its  front  rays 
spinous. 


~  IG.  246. — THE  PKRCH. 

This  Order  may  be  divided  into  several  families,  the  most  re 
niarkable  of  which  are  the  Perches  y  the  Mullets,  the  Gurnards, 
the  Labyrinthiform  Pharyngeals,  and  the  Mackerels. 

The  family  of  Perches  (Pcrcoidsfi  or  fishes  that  resemble  the 

*  8,Kav6a,  acantha,  a  thorn  or  spine;  irreptyiov,  pterygion,  a  fin:  having  fins  with 
spinous  or  thorn-like  rays. 

t  The  families  of  fishes  are  frequently  designated  by  adding  the  syllable  aid — derived 
from  the  Greek  word  et'56s  (eidos),  form — to  the  name  of  the  typical  species.  Thus, 
Percoid,  means  like  the  Perch  ;  Gadoid,  like  the  Cod  ;  Scomberoid,  like  the  Mackerel, 
&c.  In  the  same  way,  the  Greek  patronymic  ida;  is  frequently  employed :  thus  we  say, 
Perca,  the  Perch;  Percidse,  the  family  of  Perches ;  GaduS,  the  Cod;  Gadidse, 
the  family  of  Cod-fishes  ;  Scpmber,  the  Mackerel;  Scomberidae,  the  family  of 
the  Mackerels.  In  the  following  pages  both  these  forms  are  used  indiscriminately. 


MULLETS. 


perch  in  th-jir  general  structure)  comprehends  such  as  have  an 
oblong,  more  or  less,  compressed  body,  covered  with  scales  which 
are  generally  hard.  The  mouth  is  large,  and  armed  with  teeth 
upon  all  the  prominent  parts  of  its  interior,  and  the  gill-cover 
(operculnui)  is  dentate  or  spiny  on  its  edge ;  the  fins  are  always 
seven  or  eight  in  number.  In  general,  they  are  adorned  with 
beautiful  colours,  and  their  flesh  is  very  agreeable  food. 

The  Perches  (Perca)  are  distinguished  by  their  smooth  tongue,  and  by 
the  spines  on  their  opercula.  They  inhabit  fresh  water.  The  common  perch 
is  found  throughout  Europe  and  a  great  part  of  Asia.  It  inhabits  lakes,  rivers, 
and  running  streams,  and  ordinarily  swims  at  a  depth  of  two  or  three  feet. 
Perches  feed  on  worms,  insects,  and  small  fishes.  They  spawn  in  the  month 
of  April,  and  their  eggs  are  joined  together  by  a  viscid  matter  in  long  cords, 
iound  interlaced  among  reeds,  £c. 


FIG.  247.— THE  BASSE. 

The  Sea-Perch,  or  Basse  (Labrcuc}  closely  resembles  the  river-perch.  The 
scales  are  large,  of  a  metallic  lustre,  and  the  operculum  is  serrated  upon  its  middle 
plate.  This  fish  abounds  on  our  southern  coast,  and  is  much  esteemed  as  an  article  of 
food. 


FIG.  248.     RED  MULLET. 


The  Mullets  (Mnllus)  are  easily  distinguished  by  the  large 
scales  with  which  the  whole  body  is  covered,  and  by  two  long 
cirrhi,  or  beards,  that  hang  from  under  the  lower  jaw.  Two 
species  live  in  European  seas,  namely,  the  Red  Mullet  and  the 
Surmullet. 


24o  FISHES. 


The  Red  Mullet  (Mull us  barbalus]  has  the  body  and  tail  red,  even  after  the  scales 
have  been  removed  ;  its  size  is  ordinarily  from  eight  to  ten  inches.  It  lives  in  many 
seas,  particularly  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  is  much  prized  for  the  excellence  of  its 
flesh.  It  is  celebrated  on  account  of  the  pleasure  which  the  Romans  took  in  contem- 
plating the  changes  of  colour  it  displays  whilst  dying.  Exorbitant  prices  were  paid  for 
mullets  of  extraordinary  size,  and  at  entertainments  they  were  brought  to  table  alive, 
and  cooked  before  the  eyes  of  the  guests. 

The  Surmullet  (Mullus  surmuletus)  is  larger  than  the  mullet,  and  is  longitudi- 
nally striped  with  yellow. 

The  family  of  the  Mailed- Cheeks  (Buccce  Loricate?)  is  recog- 
nized by  the  manner  in  which  the  bones  of  the  face  are  prolonged 
to  the  gill-covers,  and  protect  the  cheeks  as  with  a  bony  case.    In 
this  family  are  placed 
The  Plying  Gurnards  (Dactylopterus}*  in  which  the  pectoral  fin-rays 


FIG.  249.—  ORIENTAL  FLYING  GURNARD. 

are  very  numerous,  and  united  by  a  membrane  so  as  to  form  large  pectoral 
tins,  whereby  these  fishes  are  enabled  to  sustain  themselves  in  the  air  when 
they  spring  out  of  the  water  in  the  hope  of  escaping  from  their  enemies. 
Voyagers  meet  with  them  in  the  Mediterranean,  but  more  frequently  in  tro- 
pical seas.  They  swim  in  numerous  shoals,  which  the  bonito  and  other 
voracious  fishes  fiercely  pursue  ;  and  when,  to  escape  this  danger,  they  spring 
into  the  air,  another,  not  less  great,  awaits  them,  for  a  host  of  sea-birds,  such 
as  the  frigate-bird  and  Phaeton,  are  always  ready  to  pounce  upon  them. 

The  Squamipennesf  (scaly-fins]  are  recognized   by  having 

*  8a.KTV\os,  dactylos,  a  finger ;  irrepov,  pteron,  a  wing:  finger- winged. 
t  Squama,  a  scale;  penna,  a  feather  ovfui. 


MACKERELS.  241 


the  soft  and  sometimes  the  spinous  part  of  the  dorsal  fin  covered 
with  scales,  and  scarcely  distinguishable  from  the  mass  of  the 
body.  Their  jaws  are  furnished  with  several  rows  of  teeth,  re- 
sembling in  their  conformation  and  arrangement  the  hairs  of  a 
brush.  Their  mouth  is  very  small,  and  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins 
covered  with  scales.  These  fishes  are  numerous  in  the  seas  of 
hot  climates,  and  are  remarkable  for  the  beauty  and  brilliancy  of 


FIG.  250. — THE  SHOOTING-FISH. 

their  colours.    Among  them  may  be  mentioned  a  singular  group, 
called 

The  Archers,  or  Shooting  Fishes  (To.votes}*  of  which  a  common  species, 
Toxotes  jaculator,  inhabits  the  Ganges  and  the  seas  of  India.  They  are  cele- 
brated on  account  of  the  manner  in  which  they  are  said  to  project  drops  of 
water  at  insects  that  frequent  aquatic  plants,  in  order  to  bring  them  down  to 
feed  on  them.  They  can  hit  their  game  at  the  height  of  three  or  four  feet, 
and  rarely  miss  their  aim. 

The  family  of  Labyrinthiform  Pharyngeals  is  remarkable 
from  its  members  possessing  an  apparatus  of  very  complicated 
cells,  situated  above  the  gills.  These  cells,  enclosed  beneath  the 
operculum,  and  formed  by  convolutions  of  the  bones  of  the  throat, 
serve  to  retain  a  certain  quantity  of  water,  which  keeps  the 
branchiae  wet  when  the  animal  is  exposed  to  the  air,  and  thus 
enables  it  to  live  for  a 'considerable  time  out  of  water.  Some 
species  are  in  the  habit  of  leaving  the  rivers  and  pools,  their 
usual  abode,  and  going  to  considerable  distances,  crawling  on 


*  TO^OTTJJ,  toxotes,  an  archer. 


242  FISHES. 


the  grass  or  on  the  land.  Those  that  possess  the  labyrinthiform 
arrangement  in  its  highest  degree  of  complication  (Anabas,  Perca 
scandens),  not  only  remain  a  long  time  out  of  the  water,  but  also, 
as  we  are  told,  climb  trees.  Most  of  the  fishes  of  this  family  in- 
habit India  and  China. 


FIG.  251.—  THE  MACKEREL. 

The  tribe  of  Mackerels  (Scomberoids)  is  the  most  important 
of  the  Order.  It  comprises  many  fishes  of  considerable  size,  the 
flesh  of  which  is  excellent,  and  their  fecundity  so  inexhaustible, 
that  in  spite  of  the  continued  destruction  to  which  they  are  sub- 
ject, they  return  yearly  in  immense  legions  to  the  same  localities, 
and  offer  themselves  a  rich  reward  to  the  activity  of  fishermen 
and  the  industry  of  those  who  make  it  a  business  to  prepare  and 
preserve  them.  In  general,  the  Scomberoids  have  very  small 
scales,  and  a  large  part  of  their  skin  is  smooth.  They  have  no 
spines  nor  denticulations  upon  the  opercular  bones  ;  their  vertical 
fins  are  not  scaly ;  the  tail  and  caudal  fin  are  large  and  very 
vigorous.  Most  of  them  have  the  sides  of  the  tail  armed  with 
broad  shield-like  plates  ;  and  in  many,  the  posterior  rays  of  the 
second  dorsal  and  anal  fins  are  separated  into  distinct  portions, 
and  form  so  many  false  or  spurious  fins. 

Those  which  possess  these  last  characters,  and  have  the  dorsal 
fin  continuous,  form  the  family  of 


TUNNIES.  243 


True  Mackerels  (Scomber],  including  the  Tunny,  the  Sword-Fish,  the 
Bonito,  and  the  common  Mackerel. 

The  Common  Mackerel  (Scomber  scombrus]  has  a  blue  back  marked  with  un- 
dulating black  stripes,  and  five  false  fins ;  it  is  a  migratory  fish,  and  at  certain  seasons 
abounds  both  on  the  coasts  of  Europe  and  of  America.  On  the  western  coast  of  England 
mackerel  are  captured  with  nets  by  torchlight.  The  fishermen  spread  themselves  over 
several  miles,  and  cast  their  nets,  which  are  sometimes  more  than  a  league  in  extent, 
in  the  direction  pursued  by  the  shoals  of  mackerel.  The  meshes  of  the  net  are  of  a 
size  to  receive  the  head  of  a  moderate-sized  fish,  but  arrest  it  by  the  fins,  and  when  it 
endeavours  to  extricate  itself,  its  gills  become  entangled,  and  it  is  held  prisoner. 

The  mackerel  is  also  caught  by  the  hook  and  line.  It  bites  voraciously  at  anything 
that  appears  to  have  life— a  bright  fish,  a  piece  of  glittering  metal,  or  a  bit  of  scarlet 
cloth.  The  line  is  short,  but  made  heavy  with  lead,  and  in  this  manner  a  couple  of 
men  can  catch  a  thousand  in  a  day.  With  swelling  sails  the  boat  flies  along,  and  a  sharp 
wind  is  considered  so  desirable  that  it  is  called  a  "mackerel  breeze."  The  more  rapid 
the  speed  the  greater  the  success,  for  the  mackerel  rushes  like  lightning  after  the  boat, 
taking  it  for  a  flying  prey.  "  There  is  not,"  writes  the  author  of  "  Wild  Sports  of  the 
West,"  "on  sea  or  river— always  excepting  angling  for  salmon — any  sport  comparable 
to  this  delightful  amusement,  full  of  life  and  bustle,  everything  about  it  is  animating  and 
exhilarating,  a  bri.sk  breeze  and  a  clear  sky,  the  boat  in  quick  and  constant  motion — all 
is  calculated  to  interest  and  excite.  He  who  has  experienced  the  glorious  sensation  of 
sailing  on  the  Western  Ocean,  a  bright  autumnal  sky  above,  a  deep-green  swell  around, 
a  steady  breeze,  and  as  much  of  it  as  the  hooker  can  stand  up  to,  will  estimate  the 
enjoyment  of  a  moniing's  mackerel-fishing." 


FIG.  252.— TL-NXY. 

The  Tunnies  (Thynnus)  are  closely  related  to  the  mackerel,  from  which 
they  are  distinguished  by  a  kind  of  corslet  round  the  thorax,  composed  of 
scales  larger  and  not  so  smooth  as  those  of  the  rest  of  the  body. 

The  Common  Tunny  (Scomber  thynnus]  resembles  the  mackerel  in  its  general 
form,  but  is  rounder,  and  attains  a  larger  size.  In  general,  its  length  is  three  or  four 
feet,  but- it  has  been  known  to  attain  more  than  fifteen.  This  fish  is  sometimes  seen  in 
the  ocean,  but  it  abounds  specially  in  the  Mediterranean.  At  certain  periods  it  coasts 
along  the  shore  in  innumerable  shoals,  and  gives  rise  to  very  important  fisheries,  which 
have  been  carried  on  from  time  immemorial,  and  constitute  a  chief  source  of  wealth  to 
Provence  and  Sardinia.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  modes  of  taking  the  tunny  is  by 
the  Madragus :  this  name  is  given  to  a  sort  of  labyrinth  of  nets  stretched  out  vertically 
into  the  sea,  and  so  arranged  as  to  form  a  series  of  chambers.  The  fishes  first  pass  be- 
tween the  shore  and  the  chambers  destined  to  receive  them,  but,  arrested  by  a  cross  net, 
they  turn  towards  the  high  sea,  and  enter  the  labyrinth,  where  they  become  bewildered, 
and  pass  on  into  the  last  enclosure,  called  the  "chamber  of  death  "  or  "corpou."  This 
compartment  is  provided  with  a  moveable  floor  formed  of  netting,  which  can  be  raised 
to  the  surface  of  the  water  by  means  of  ropes,  and  as  the  moving  floor  of  the  corpou 

16 — 2 


244 


FISHES. 


gradually  rises,  the  tunnies  begin  to  appear,  and  soon  the  whole  shoal  is  exposed  to 
view.  Pressed  close  to  each  other,  the  monster  fishes  throw  themselves  about  and  rush 
in  despair  against  the  netted  walls  of  their  prison.  Animated  by  the  sight  of  their 
victims,  the  fishermen  assail  them  in  a  body,  and  the  whole  becomes  a  wild  scene  of 
massacre.  The  serried  crowds  of  slaughterers  seem  to  be  composed  of  nothing  but 
violently  moving  heads,  bloody  arms  that  rise  and  fall,  and  harpoons  that  flash  and 
cross  one  another  as  they  are  hurled  at  the  helpless  fishes.  All  eyes  are  sparkling,  all 
lips  are  uttering  cries  of  triumph,  clamour,  and  encouragement,  the  waters  are  dyed  red 
with  blood,  the  dying  lie  heaped  together  in  vast  multitudes,  and  the  result  is  that  five 
hundred  or  six  hundred  tunnies  are  thus  butchered  in  one  "  tonnara."  The  flesh  of  the 
tunny  is  much  esteemed  ;  it  resembles  beef,  and  is  preserved  either  by  the  aid  of  salt, 
or  by  boiling  and  immersing  it  in  oil. 


FIG.  253.— BONITO. 

The  Bonito  (Scomber pelamys],  celebrated  on  account  of  its  pursuit  of  the  flying- 
fishes  in  the  tropics,  is  a  kind  of  tunny :  it  may  be  recognized  by  the  longitudinal  brown 
stripes  with  which  the  belly  is  marked. 

The  Sword-Fishes  (Xiphias)*  are  distinguished  by  their  beak  or  sword- 
like  nose,  which  is  often  fifteen  feet  in  length.  This  fish  is  more  common  in 
the  Mediterranean  than  in  the  Atlantic.  The  flesh,  which  is  white  and  com- 
pact, is  delicate.  It  is  often  taken  with  the  harpoon. 


FIG.  254.— SWORD-FISH. 


Another  tribe,  called  Centronotus,f  is  characterized  by  the  absence  of 
the  membrane  that  unites  the  rays  of  the  first  dorsal  fin,  which  consequently 
remain  free.  Among  other  fishes  belonging  to  this  tribe  is 

The  Pilot-Fish.  (Naucrates'+  or  Scomber  ductor],  so  called  from  its  habit  of  following 
vessels  to  seize  anything  that  may  be  thrown  overboard,  and  also  the  habit  attributed 
to  it  of  conducting  the  shark,  which,  directed  by  the  same  instinct,  frequently  accom- 
panies vessels  at  sea  with  great  perseverance.  It  has  somewhat  the  appearance  of  a 


,  xiphos,  a  sword. 


t  Kevrpov,  centron,  a  sharp  point  ;  J/WTOS,  notes,  the  back. 
,  naucrates,  commanding  tlie  sea. 


DOLPHIN. 


245 


mackerel,  with  a  cartilaginous  keel  on  the  sides  of  the  tail, 
about  a  foot  long. 


The  common  species  is 


FIG.  255.— PILOT-FISH. 

The  Dolphin-Pish  (Corypfiana)  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  true  dolphin 
(Delphinus),  to  be  described  hereafter.  Nevertheless,  the  Coryphccna  are  equally  sub- 
jects of  universal  admiration. 

During  a  calm  these  fishes,  when  swimming  about  a  ship,  appear  of  a  brilliant  blue 
or  purple,  shining  with  metallic  lustre  in  every  change  of  reflected  light.  On  being 


FlG.  256. — CORYPH-rEN'A. 

captured  and  brought  on  deck,  the  variety  of  these  tints  is  very  beautiful :  the  bright 
purple  and  golden  yellow  hues  change  to  a  brilliant  silver,  varying  back  again  into  the 
original  colours,  purple  and  gold.  This  alternation  of  tints  continues  for  some  time, 
diminishing  in  intensity,  and  at  last  settles  down  to  a  dull  leaden  hue. 

"Parting  day 

Dies  like  the  dolphin,  whom  each  pang  imbues 
With  a  new  colour,  as  it  gasps  away, 
The  last  still  loveliest,  till — 'tis  gone — and  all  is  grey." 

The  Riband  Fishes  (Ttenioids)*  are  distinguished  by  an  extremely 

*  Taivia,  tsenia,  a  riband ;  elSos,  eidos,  form,  shat>e. 


246 


FISHES. 


elongated  body,  very  much  flattened  on  the  sides :  their  form  has  obtained 
for  them  the  name  of  Riband-Fishes  and  Scabbard-Fishes. 


FlG.  257. — SCABBARD-FlSH. 

The  Family  of  Mugiloids  is  distinct  from  all  the  preceding, 
and  is  characterized  by  an  almost  cylindrical  body  covered  with 
large  scales,  a  slightly  depressed  head,  and  short  muzzle,  a 
transverse  mouth  armed  with  extremely  fine  teeth,  two  separate 
dorsal -fins,  and  the  ventral  fins  attached  behind  the  pectoral. 
They  constitute  a  single  genus, 

The  Mullets  (MugH},  which,  although  they  bear  in  English  the  same 
name,  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  Red  Mullet  (Mnllus]  described  in  a 
preceding  page.  Their  flesh  is  much  esteemed. 


FIG.  258. — THICK-LIPPED  GKEY  MULLET. 


ABDOMINAL  SOFT-FINNED  FISHES.     ORDER 
MALACOPTERYGII  *  ABDOMINALES. 

This  division  is  composed  of  osseous  fishes  that  have  the  upper 
jaw  moveable ;  simple  pectinate  gills  ;  and  the  fin-rays  soft  and 
flexible  ;  their  ventral  fins  are  suspended  behind  the  pectorals,  as 
though  they  were  attached  to  the  abdomen,  whence  the  name  of 
the  Order. 

They  may  be  divided  as  in  the  following  table : 

* /iaAa/cos,  malacos,  soft;  Trrfptiytov,  pterygion,  a  Jin. 


CARPS. 


247 


/  Mouth  small  and 
weak,  often  unpro- 
vided with  teeth 


Cyprinoids. 


/-Margin  of   the 
upper    jaw 
formed  almost 

pharynx.      Body 
scaly    

V^Cll^O. 

Without   an 

entirely  by  the  \ 
upper  maxil- 
lary bones  .     . 

Mouth  large  and 
armed  with  strong 
pointed  teeth.  Body 

Bsoces. 

. 

adipose  fln< 

ordinarily    covered 

[     Pikes. 

Ul 

on  the  back 

with  very  small 

PN 

\     <;ra1p^ 

) 

>j 

^i 

H  \ 

Margin  of  the  upper  jaw  formed  in  the 
middle  by  the  intermaxillary  bones, 

(  Clupeso. 

8 

and  on  the  sides   by  the   maxillary 

(  Herrings. 

O 

\  bones.     Body  s 

calv 

) 

P 

PQ 

With  an  adi-  ! 

(  SalmonidiD. 
^_       Salmons. 

pose  fin  on  I 

the  back       / 
'  (  Body  unprovided  with  true  scales   .     . 

C  Siluroids. 
i  Sheat-Fishes. 

FIG.  259.— THE  CARP. 


The  Carps  (Cyprinus}.  This  group  is  characterized  by  the 
absence  of  teeth  in  the  jaws,  and  by  the  existence  of  a  long  dorsal 
fin;  ordinarily  the  scales  are  very  large.  Most  of  them  feed 
upon  grain  and  vegetable  substances.  They  have  in  the  back 


248 


FISHES. 


part  of  their  mouth  a  remarkable  apparatus  fo;  crushing  their 
food. 

The  Common  Carp  ( Cyprinus  carpic,}  is  found  throughout  Europe ;  it  delights 
in  tranquil  waters,  and  is  easily  reared  in  rivers  and  ponds.  The  duration  of  its  life  is 
long,  and  it  is  exceedingly  prolific.  When  young,  its  growth  is  very  rapid,  and  at  six 
years  old  it  weighs  about  three  pounds.  During  the  winter  carps  bury  themselves  in 
the  mud,  and  pass  many  months  without  eating. 

The  Golden  Carp,  or  Gold-fish  (Cyprinus  auratus]  is  reared  in  garden  ponds 
and  vases  on  account  of  the  beauty  of  its  colours,  generally  a  beautiful  golden  red, 
with  a  mixture  of  black  and  silvery  white. 

The  Barbels  (Barbus)  resemble  the  carps,  but  their  dorsal  fin  is  shorter. 
The  Common  Barbel  (Cyprinus  barbus)  abounds  in  clear  running  waters. 


FIG.  260. — BARBEL.  , 

The  Gudgeons  (Gobis)  have  no  bony  spine  in  the  anterior  part  of  the 
dorsal  and  anal  fins ;  the  mouth  is  surrounded  with  cirrhi  or  beards.  Though 
small  they  are  much  esteemed. 

The  Tenches  (Tinca\  in  addition  to  the  characters  of  the  gudgeons,  have 
very  small  scales  and  very  short  cirrhi.  The  Common  Tench  (Cyprinus 
tinea)  inhabits  stagnant  waters ;  it  is  generally  of  a  yellowish-brown  colour, 
and  attains  a  foot  in  length.  It  is  less  esteemed  than  the  carp. 


FIG.  261.— TENCH. 


The  Breams  (Abramus)  have  neither  spinous  fin-rays  nor  cirrhi;  their 
dorsal  fins  are  short,  but  the  anal  is  long. 

The  Minnow  (Cyprinus  Phoxinus}*  is  a  very  small  fish  met  with  in  every 
brook.  

phoxos,  pointed. 


PIKES. 


249 


The  Roaches  (Leuciscus)  form  several  species.  The  Common  Roach 
(Leuciscus  vitlgaris)  attains  seven  or  eight  inches  in  length,  and  is  remark- 
able for  its  brilliant  scales,  which  are  easily  detached.  The  iridescent  sub- 
stance which  gives  them  this  metallic  appearance  is  employed  abroad  for  the 
manufacture  of  false  pearls. 

The  Pikes  (Esox)  are  recognized  by  their  oblong,  obtuse,  broad, 
depressed  muzzle  ;  they  have  but  one  dorsal  fin,  which  is  placed 
opposite  to  the  anal,  and  nearly  the  whole  interior  of  the  mouth 
is  full  of  teeth  as  well  as  the  jaws. 


FIG.  262. — THE  PIKE. 

The  Common  Pike  (Esoxlucius)  is  met  with  in  the  fresh  waters  of  Europe  and 
North  America,  and  is  everywhere  caught  for  its  flesh,  which  is  wholesome  and  easy 
of  digestion.  It  is  the  most  voracious  and  destructive  of  all  fresh-water  fishes;  it  de- 
vours with  avidity  frogs,  young  ducks,  and  all  the  fishes  that  come  in  its  way.  It  often 
seizes  animals  larger  than  itself,  and  its  presence  in  a  pond  is  sometimes  enough  to  de- 
populate it  in  a  very  short  time.  Pikes  four  or  five  feet  long  are  not  rare  in  the  great 
lakes  of  Northern  Europe,  and  one  of  still  larger  size  has  been  seen.  In  1497,  a  pike 
was  caught  at  Kaiserlauten,  near  Mannheim,  which  was  nearly  nineteen  feet  in  length, 


FIG.  263. — THE  GAR-FISH. 

and  weighed  three  hundred  and  fifty  pounds.  This  monster  was  as  remarkable  for  its 
great  age  as  for  its  size,  for  there  was  found  upon  it  a  gilt  copper  ring,  bearing  this 
inscription — "I  was  the  first  fish  that  was  thrown  into  this  pond  by  the  hands  of 


250 


FISHES. 


Frederick  II.,  Oct.  5,  1230  ;"  it  was  consequently  at  least  two  hundred  and  sixty-seven 
years  old.  The  growth  of  these  fish  is  very  rapid  :  the  first  year  they  are  often  ten  or 
eleven  inches  in  length,  and  in  the  second  fifteen. 

The  Sea-Pike  (Esox  bdone)*  also  known  as  the  Gar-Fish,  Spit- Fish,  and  Bill-Fish, 
belongs  to  this  family. 

The  Flying  Fishes  (Exocetus)  f  belong  to  the  same  family  as  the  pikes, 
and  are  recognized,  at  first  sight,  by  the  excessive  length  of  their  pectoral 
fins,  which  are  long  enough  to  serve  them  as  wings  and  to  sustain  them  for  a 
few  seconds  in  the  air.  They  swim  in  shoals,  and  are  pursued  by  legions  of 
voracious  enemies,  to  escape  from  which  they  spring  out  of  the  water,  but 
soon  fall  again,  because  their  wings  only  serve  them  as  a  parachute.  While 


FIG.  264. — THE  FLYING  FISH. 

on  their  aerial  course,  they  often  become  the  prey  of  sea-birds.  It  is  a 
beautiful  sight  on  a  clear  day  to  see  them  sparkling  in  the  air,  with  silvery 
brightness,  or  rushing  from  the  water  with  an  audible  rustling  sound  as  they 
spread  out  their  large  pellucid  wings  or  fins  in  a  new  element,  their  brilliant 
purple  backs  gleaming  and  their  sides  blazing  like  molten  metal  under  the 
dazzling  light  of  a  tropical  sun.  The  greatest  length  of  time  they  remain  in 
the  air  is  thirty-two  seconds,  and  their  longest  flight  from  200  to  250  yards. 

The  Siluroids  differ  from  all  other  abdominal  Malacoptery- 
gians  in  their  want  of  true  scales.  The  skin  is  naked,  or  furnished 
with  bony  plates.  The  dorsal  and  pectoral  fins  have  a  long  ar- 
ticulated spine  for  the  first  fin-ray,  and  there  is  a  small  adipose 
or  soft  fin  towards  the  hinder  part  of  the  back.  One  species, 

belone,  a  needle  or  spear-head.  f  e/c,  ek,  outside ;  KOIT-TJ,  coite,  a  bed: 

so  called  because  these  fishes  were  supposed,  to  sleep  on  land. 


SALMONS. 


251 


The  Sheat-Pish  (Silurus  giants),  is  the  largest  fresh-water  fish  in  Europe ;  its 
length  ordinarily  exceeds  six  feet,  and  its  weight  is  near  three  hundred  pounds. 

The  Electric  SilurilS  (Silurus  electricus)  of  the  Nile,  like  the  torpedo  and 
gymnotus,  possesses  the  power  of  giving  strong  electric  shocks. 

The  seat  of  this  extraordinary  faculty  is  in  a  peculiar  tissue,  situated  between  the 
muscles  and  the  skin,  and  having  the  appearance  of  a  fatty  cellular  structure.  This 
fish,  which  inhabits  the  Senegal  as  well  as  the  Nile,  is  eighteen  or  twenty  inches  in 
length.  The  Arabs  call  it  raasch,  which  signifies  thunder. 

The  Salmons  (Salmonidce}  are  distinguished  by  a  scaly  body, 
and  a  first  dorsal  fin  with  soft  rays,  followed  by  a  second  which 
is  small  and  adipose,  that  is,  formed  by  a  fold  of  the  skin  filled 
with  fat,  and  without  rays. 


FIG.  265. — THE  SALMON. 

The  Common  Salmon  (Salmo  Salar)  is  the  largest  species  of  the  family.  It  is 
found  in  great  numbers  in  the  Arctic  Seas,  whence  it  ascends  rivers  in  large  shoals 
every  spring.  It  swims  with  great  rapidity,  and  can  clear  at  a  leap  obstacleg  to  its 
passage  twelve  or  fifteen  feet  in  height.  When  salmon  arrive  at  a  place  ht  for  spawn- 
ing, they  deposit  their  eggs  in  the  gravel  at  the  bottom,  and  then  permit  themselves  to 
be  carried  by  the  current  to  the  sea,  where  they  go  to  acquire  strength,  and  return 
again  the  following  spring.  Young  salmon  are  therefore  born  in  the  rivers ;  their  gro\rth 
is  rapid,  and  when  they  attain  the  size  of  about  twelve  inches,  they  descend  to  the  sea 
like  the  adults. 

The  salmon-fishery,  in  many  countries,  forms  a  very  important  branch  of  industry.  In 
Norway  as  many  as  three  hundred  of  these  fishes  have  been  caught  at  one  haul,  and  in 
the  River  Tweed  as  many  as  seven  hundred.  The  time  selected  for  catching  them  is 
when  they  ascend  the  rivers  to  spawn,  for  after  they  have  deposited  their  eggs,  and  are 
on  their  way  to  the  sea,  they  are  very  lean  and  their  flesh  of  little  value.  In  general,  this 
fishery  is  conducted  by  means  of  nets  stretched  across  the  river,  and  so  arranged  that 
the  salmon  are  caught  in  the  meshes.  But  sometimes,  in  Scotland  for  example,  they 


252  FISHES. 

are  speared  with  a  many-pronged  weapon  called  a  leister.     They  are  also  caught  with 
a  rod  and  line. 

The  Salmon  Trout  (Salmo  trutta),  the  Common  Trout  (Salmo 
fario),  the  Smelts  (Osmerus),  and  the  Graylings  (Thymellus\  all 
belong  to  this  important  family. 


FIG.  266.— THE  COMMON  TROUT. 

The  Herrings  (Clupeada]  have  no  adipose  fin.  The  upper  jaw 
is  formed  in  the  middle  by  the  intermaxillary  bones,  and  on  the 
sides  by  the  maxillary  bones.  Their  body  is  always  scaly. 

The  Common  Herring's  (Clupea  harengus]  inhabit  the  northern  seas,  and 
arrive  every  year  upon  different  parts  of  the  coasts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America,  but 
do  not  go  very  far  south  of  the  fortieth  degree  of  north  latitude.  Some  naturalists 
have  supposed  that  all  herrings  periodically  retire  beneath  the  ice  of  the  Polar  Seas, 
and  set  out  from  this  common  retreat  in  an  immense  column,  which  dividing,  spreads 
along  the  coasts  north  of  the  parallel  above  named ;  but  this  distant  emigration,  and 
this  northern  rendezvous  in  the  Arctic  regions,  are  far  from  being  demonstrated,  and 
there  is  reason  to  believe  that  they  merely  recede  from  the  shore. 

In  the  months  of  April  and  May  herrings  begin  to  appear  off  the  Shetland  Islands, 
and  towards  the  end  of  June,  or  in  July,  they  arrive  in  incalculable  numbers,  forming 
vast  and  dense  shoals,  which  sometimes  extend  over  the  surface  of  the  sea  for  several 
leagues,  and  are  hundreds  of  feet  in  thickness.  The  herring-fishery  is  of  great  import- 
ance; it  occupies  every  year  entire  fleets,  and  formerly  was  carried  on  with  still  greater 
activity.  About  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  the  Dutch  employed  not  less 
than  2,000  vessels ;  and  it  is  estimated  that  800,000  persons  in  Holland  and  West  Fries- 
land  derived  their  living  from  this  branch  of  industry  alone. 

Herrings  are  generally  caught  by  means  of  nets,  five  or  six  hundred  fathoms  in 
length,  the  lower  edge  of  which  is  loaded  with  lead,  while  the  upper  edge  is  made  to 


HERRINGS. 


253 


float  upon  the  surface  by  means  of  buoys  of  cork.  The  meshes  are  just  large  enough 
to  receive  the  head  of  a  herring  as  far  as  the  gills,  but  not  to  allow  the  pectoral  fins  to 
pass.  The  fish,  in  endeavouring  to  overcome  the  obstacle  that  this  great  vertical  net 
opposes  to  its  passage,  is  thus  meshed,  and  not  being  able  to  advance  or  to  recede, 
owing  to  the  gills  and  the  fins,  he  remains  a  prisoner  until  the  fishermen  draw  the  net 
on  board.  This  is  termed  a  gill-net.  The  number  of  herrings  taken  in  this  way  is 
sometimes  so  great  that  the  net  bursts  under  their  weight.  Generally,  this  fishery  is 
carried  on  at  some  distance  from  the  shore,  and  the  herrings  are  salted  on  board. 

The  Sardine  (Clupea  Sardina]  is  a  small  species  of  herring,  celebrated  for  the 
delicacy  of  its.  flesh.  It  inhabits  the  Baltic,  the  Atlantic,  and  the  Mediterranean. 
During  the  winter  it  keeps  in  the  depths  of  the  sea,  but  about  the  month  of  June  it 
draws  near  the  shore  in  immense  shoals.  As  many  as  forty  or  even  fifty  thousand 
have  been  taken  at  a  single  cast  of  the  net.  Sardines  are  caught  in  the  same  way  as 
herrings,  but  the  meshes  of  the  net  are  smaller,  and  the  fishermen,  to  attract  the  fish, 
throw  into  the  sea  a  peculiar  bait,  formed  from  cod-fish  eggs.  From  the  mouth  of 
the  Loire  to  the  extremity  ot  Brittany,  sardines  abound  every  summer,  and  give  rise  to 
productive  fisheries.  Along  the  coast  there  are  a  great  number  of  establishments  for 
the  preparation  and  preservation  of  these  delicate  luxuries. 

The  Pilchard,  the  Sprat,  the  Whitebait,  and  the  Shad,  are  all 
of  them  species  of  herrings. 

The  Anchovies,  too  (Engranlis\  belong  to  this  family ;  but 
they  differ  from  the  herrings  in  the  mouth,  which  is  cleft  to  far 
behind  the  eyes,  in  their  gills,  which  are  more  open,  and  in  some 
other  characters. 

The  Common  Anchovy  is  found  in  the  Mediterranean  as  well  as  on  the 
western  coasts  of  France  and  Spain.  At  a  certain  time  of  the  year,  which  varies  in 
different  localities,  it  leaves  the  high  seas  and  approaches  the  coast  to  spawn,  when  it 


254 


FISHES. 


becomes  the  object  of  an  important  fishery:  to  catch  it  the  fishermen  provide  them- 
selves with  nets,  about  two  hundred  feet  in  length,  and  twenty-five  or  thirty  in  breadth, 
and  assemble  four  boats,  one  of  which  carries  the  net,  and  the  others  furnaces  in  which 
they  make  a  bright  fire.  This  fishery  is  carried  on  in  the  dark  nights  from  April  to  July. 
The  boats  are  stationed  about  five  miles  from  the  coast,  and  when  the  anchovies,  attracted 
by  the  light,  are  assembled  in  large  numbers  around  a  boat  thus  illuminated,  the  net  is 
cast  into  the  water,  and  laid  out  so  as  to  surround  the  assembled  fishes.  This  done,  the 
fire  is  suddenly  extinguished,  and  the  anchovies,  alarmed,  in  seeking  to  escape  are  taken 
in  the  net.  They  are  preserved  with  salt  after  removing  the  head  and  the  intestines. 


FIG.  268.-— ANCHOVY. 


A  very  curious  family,  named 

The  Anglers  (Lop1iius\  is  represented  in  our  seas  by  a  large 
and  voracious  species,  bearing  several  homely  appellations,  such 
as  the  Wide-gab,  Sea-Devil,  and  more  commonly  the  Frog-Fish 
or  Fishing  Frog.  In  these  fishes,  the  pectoral  and  ventral  fins 
are  shaped  like  hands,  and  project  so  far  from  the  surface  of  the 
body  as  to  be  capable  of  being  bent  forward  and  used  as  feet, 
as  represented  in  the  accompanying  figure  (Fig.  269). 


FIG.  969.— MARBLED  ANGLER. 

The  Common  Angler  (Lophius  piscatorius]  (Fig.  270)  is  a  large  fish,  sometimes 
attaining  five  feet  in  length.  The  head,  as  will  be  observed,  is  furnished  with  slender 
rods,  furnished  at  the  tip  with  long  waving  tassels,  resembling  worms.  The  use  of 


COD.  255 

these  organs  is  very  remarkable.  The  fish  is  not  one  gifted  with  swift  motion,  and  there- 
fore cannot  take  its  prey  by  pursuit ;  instead  of  this,  it  usually  conceals  itself  in  the  mud 
at  the  bottom,  or  perhaps  among  the  stalks  of  floating  weeds,  while  it  agitates  its  curious 
fleshy  baits.  Their  resemblance  to  worms  and  their  motion  attract  other  fishes,  which, 
coming  within  reach,  are  seized  by  the  capacious  mouth  of  the  concealed  frog-fish  and 
swallowed  at  a  gulp. 


FIG.  270. — THE  ANGLER. 

SU.B-BRACHIAL  SOFT-FIX  NED  FISHES.    ORDER 
MALACOPTERYGII  SUB-BRACHIATI.* 

This  Order  is  distinguished  by  the  situation  of  the  ventral  fins, 
which  are  placed  beneath  the  pectorals. 

It  contains  four  families,  namely,  the  Gadoids  (Cod- Fishes), 
Pleuronectes  (Flat  Fishes],  the  Discoboli  (Lumpsiickers),  and 
the  Echeneides  or  Remorse. 

The  Gadoids  have  the  ventral  fins  sharpened  to  a  point  and 
attached  beneath  the  throat :  they  are  covered  with  soft  small 
scales  ;  most  of  them  live  in  cold  or  temperate  seas ;  and  they 
afford  mankind  an  abundance  of  good  and  wholesome  food.  To 
this  family  belong  the  Cod,  the  Haddock,  the  Whiting,  the  Coal- 
Fish,  the  Pollack,  the  Hake,  the  Ling,  and  other  species  which, 
although  little  known  with  us,  are  valuable  in  other  countries  for 
their  flesh,  forming  an  important  article  of  diet  both  in  the  fresh 
state  and  when  salted  and  dried.  Many  of  the  members  of  this 
family  are  remarkable  for  the  number  of  their  fins:  thus  it  will 
be  seen  on  referring  to  our  engraving  (Fig.  271),  that  the  Cod  has 
no  fewer  than  ten — three  dorsals,  two  pectorals,  two  ventrals,  two 
anals,  and  the  caudal.  In  some  species,  however,  the  dorsals  are 
united  into  a  single  lengthened  fin,  as  also  are  the  anals.  Most 
of  them  have  short  fleshy  beards  or  tentacles  depending  from  the 

*Sub,  beneath',  brachium,  the  arm. 


256 


FISHES. 


FIG.  271.—  THE  COD. 

lower  jaw.  The  fishery  for  cod  is  the  most  valuable  in  the  world 
—  the  pursuit,  the  curing,  and  the  transport  affording  employ- 
ment to  thousands  of  hardy  industrious  people,  and  whole  fleets 
of  ships.  The  value  of  the  fish  taken  by  British  subjects,  on  the 
coast  of  Newfoundland  alone,  is  not  less  than  £5  00,000  annually. 
They  are  caught  with  hook  and  line. 

The  Pleuronectidse,*  or  Flat  Fishes,  have  the  body  com- 
pressed laterally,  and  very  much  elevated  vertically;  but  what 
especially  distinguishes  them  is  a  want  of  symmetry  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  head,  a  character  which  is  not  observed  in  any 
other  vertebrate  animal.  Both  eyes  are  placed  on  the  side  that  is 
uppermost,  which  is  deeply  coloured,  while  the  other  side  is  white. 
The  two  corners  of  the  mouth  are  unequal,  and  it  is  rare  to  find 
both  pectoral  fins  exactly  alike  ;  the  dorsal  fin  extends  along  the 
whole  back,  the  anal  fin  occupies  the  lower  part  of  the  body,  and 
the  ventrals  seem  to  be  continuations  of  it  in  front,  as  they  are 
almost  united  one  to  another.  The  principal  genera  of  this  family 
are  the  noble  Turbot  and  Brill  (Rliombus),  the  valuable  Sole  (Soled), 
the  gigantic  Holibut  (Hippoglossus),  the  Plaice,  the  Flounder,  and 
the  various  species  of  Dabs  and  Flukes  (Platessa\  all  of  which,  in 
a  greater  or  less  degree,  are  in  estimation  as  human  food.  Their 
form  is  very  deep,  but  at  the  same  time  very  thin,  and  they  are 


r~\evp6v,  pleuron,  the  side; 


,  nektes,  a  swimmer:  so  called  from  their  swimming 
on  one  side. 


FLAT  FISHES. 


257 


not  constituted  to  swim  as  other  fishes  do,  with  their  back  upper- 
most, but  lying  on  one  side.  They  reside  wholly  upon  the  bottom, 
shuffling  along  by  waving  their  flattened  bodit_s,  fringed  with  the 
dorsal  and  anal  fins ;  and  as  they  are  somewhat  sluggish  in  their 
movements,  they  need  concealment  from  their  enemies.  This  is 
afforded  to  them  by  the  side  which  is  uppermost  being  of  a  dusky 
brown  hue,  undistinguishable  from  the  mud  on  which  they  rest; 
and  so  conscious  are  they  where  their  safety  lies,  that,  when 
alarmed,  they  do  not  seek  to  escape  by  flight,  but  sink  down  close 
to  the  bottom  and  lie  perfectly  motionless. 

In  the  structure  of  the  head,  again,  there  is  a  peculiar  and  very 


FlC.   2;_-.  -UlM'ER  SIDE  OF  THE  SOLE. 


FIG.  273.— UNDER  SIDE  OF  THE  SOLE. 


remarkable  provision  for  the  wants  of  the  creature.  If  the  eyes 
were  placed,  as  in  all  other  animals,  one  on  each  side  of  the  head, 
it  is  plain  that  the  flat  fishes,  habitually  grovelling  in  the  manner 
described,  would  be  deprived  of  the  sight  of  one  eye,  which  being 
always  buried  in  the  mud  would  be  quite  useless.  To  meet  this 
difficulty  the  skeleton  is  distorted,  taking  near  the  head  a  sudden 
twist  to  one  side;  and  thus  the  two  eyes  are  placed  on  the  side 
which  is  kept  uppermost,  where  both  are  available.  The  side  fur- 
nished with  eyes  and  provided  with  dark  colour  varies  in  the 

17 


FISHES. 


different  genera :  in  the  Plaice,  Flounder,  and  Sole  it  is  the  right 
side;  in  the  Turbot  and  Brill  it  is  the  left;  while  of  the  Holibut 
genus,  some  have  the  right  and  some  the  left  side  uppermost. 
Individuals  are  frequently  tound  in  which  the  usual  order  is  re- 
versed, and  occasionally  both  sides  are  coloured ;  but  these  are 
casual  exceptions.  The  value  of  these  fishes  may  be  estima  ted 
from  the  fact  that  London  pays  to  the  Dutch  ,£80,000  every  year 
for  turbot  alone. 

The  Cyclopteri  *  form  a  small  group  of  sub-brachian  fishes, 
distinguished  by  having  their  ventral  fins  united  so  as  to  form  a 
broad  disk,  as  in 

The  Lumpsucker  (Cydopterus  lumpus).  In  this  remarkable  creature  the  pec- 
torals and  ventrals  form  but  a  single  adhesive  disk.  The  skin  is  without  scales,  but 
covered  with  a  thick  slime,  and  studded  with  hard  tubercles  arranged  in  regular  lines. 
Its  whole  form  is  deep,  thick,  and  short,  and  the  first  dorsal  is  enclosed  in  a  thick 
tuberculated  skin.  This  strange-looking  fish  is  often  taken  upon  our  coasts.  Not- 
withstanding its  odd  and  uncouth  form,  it  is  beautifully  and  brilliantly  coloured.  The 
back  and  sides  are  tinted  with  deep  blue,  azure,  and  purple,  while  the  under  surface 
and  fins  are  of  a  rich  orange.  It  it  sometimes  more  than  a  foot  and  a  half  in  length, 
and  almost  of  the  same  depth.  Slow  of  motion  and  incapable  of  defence,  it  adheres 
rb  foreign  objects  by  means  of  its  disk  so  firmly  that  Pennant  lifted  a  tub  containing 
several  gallons  of  water  by  taking  hold  of  a  lumpsucker  which  had  attached  itself  to  the 
bottom. 


FlG.  274. — LUMI'SUCKER. 

The  Sucking-Fishes  (EcJieneis)^  are  remarkable  for  the  pos- 
session of  a  flattened  disk  that  covers  the  back  of  their  head, 
composed  of  a  great  number  of  moveable  transverse  cartilaginous 
plates,  by  the  assis  ance  of  which  the  animal  can  attach  itself  to 
rocks,  to  vessels,  or  to  other  fishes,  particularly  to  the  shark.  A 
species  which  lives  in  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Atlantic  has 
been  long  celebrate  d  under  the  name  of 

*B/ci5/cXos,  cycles,  a  circle  ;  irrepw,  pteron,  a  fin.  f  exw,  echo,  to  hold ;  vavs,  naus, 

a  ship:   because  they  were  thought  to  be  able  to  arrest  the  course  of  ships  at  sea. 


EELS.  259 

The  Rexnora,*  or  Sucking-Fish  (Echeneis  Remord),  and  its  history  is 
loaded  with  fable.  It  was  pretended  that  this  fish  lived  by  a  species  of  suction 
exerted  by  means  of  the  disk  above  mentioned  ;  and  the  power  of  arresting 


FIG.  275. — THE  REMOKA. 

the  fastest  sailing  vessel  in  her  course  was  attributed  to  it.  A  much  larger 
species  is  common  in  the  Isle  of  France  ;  and  it  is  said  that  on  the  coast  of 
Caffraria  it  is  employed  in  fishing,  being  sent  off  in  pursuit  of  fishes  and  turtles, 
and  drawn  in  by  a  line  attached  to  the  tail  as  soon  as  it  has  fixed  itself  to  its 
victim. 

FOOTLESS  SOFT-FINNED  FISHES.     ORDER  MALACOPTERYGII 

APODES.f 

All  the  fishes  belonging  to  this  Order  have  an  elongated  form, 
a  thick,  soft,  and  but  slightly  scaly  skin  ;  their  chief  characteristic, 
however,  is  their  want  of  ventral  fins.  They  form  a  single  family, 

The  Anguilliforines,J  which  includes  the  Eels,  Gymnotits,  &c. 
All  these  fishes  have  the  operculum  very  small,  and  opening  far 
back  by  a  hole  or  sort  of  tube — an  arrangement  enabling  them 
to  live  for  some  time  out  of  water. 

The  Eels  (Anguilld)  are  characterized  by  having  the  openings  of  the  gills 
placed  beneath  the  pectoral  fins.  They  are  too  well  known  to  require  minute 
description.  Eels  are  very  voracious  and  extremely  agile.  They  swim  equally 
well  backward  or  forward',  and  their  skin  is  so  slippery  that  it  is  difficult  to  hold 
them.  During  a  great  part  of  their  life  they  inhabit  fresh  water,  and  frequent 
ponds  and  lakes  as  well  as  rivers.  By  day  they  almost  always  keep  buried 
in  the  mud,  or  lie  concealed  in  holes  that  they  excavate  near  the  shore.  These 
holes  are  sometimes  very  extensive,  and  lodge  a  great  number  of  eels  ;  but 
in  general  their  diameter  is  small,  and  they  open  externally  at  both  ends, 
thus  enabling  the  animal  to  escape  more  easily  when  threatened  with  danger. 
When  the  season  is  very  warm,  and  the  stagnant  waters  of  the  pool  begin  to 
putrefy,  the  eels  leave  the  bottom  and  conceal  themselves  in  the  herbage  of 
the  shore,  or  even  cross  the  land  in  search  of  a  more  favourable  locality  ; 
they  can,  in  fact,  crawl  on  the  ground  like  serpents,  and  remain  a  consider- 
able time  out  of  the  water  without  perishing.  Ordinarily  they  make  these 
singular  journeys  during  the  night.  When  the  ponds  dry  up,  they  bury  them- 
selves in  the  sand  and  remain  there  till  the  \vater  returns.  The  length  of 

*  Remora,  a  hindrance:  so  called  because  they  were  said  to  detain  ships, 
t  a,  a,  without;  TTOI-?,  7ro56j,  pous,  poclos,  afoot.  J  Eel-shaped. 

17 — 2 


260 


FISHES. 


FIG.  276. — SMART-NOSED  LEL. 

time  they  can  remain  in  such  a  situation  without  perishing  is  surprising.  In 
early  life,  eels  inhabit  the  sea,  and  in  the  spring  the  young  eels  ascend  rivers 
to  dwell  in  fresh  water,  which,  when  fall  grown,  they  abandon  to  deposit  their 
eggs  in  the  sea. 

The  Confer  Eels  differ  very  little  from  common  eels,  except  that  they  are 
cf  larger  size,  and  always  live  in  the  sea  or  salt  water. 


FIG.  277. — CONGER  EEL. 


FIG.  278. — MUR.SNA. 


The  MuraBnee  (Murtpna)  are  entirely  destitute  of  pectoral  fins,  and  their 
branchiae  open  on  each  side  by  a  small  hole.  The  most  celebrated  species  is 
Mtirana  Helena,  which  attains  nearly  three  feet  in  length,  and  is  marbled  with 
brown  and  yellow.  It  is  widely  spread  through  the  Mediterranean,  and  was 
very  highly  esteemed  by  the  ancients.  The  Romans  reared  them  in  great 


SEA-HORSE. 


261 


numbers  in  their  magnificent  fish-ponds,  decorated  them  with  jewels,  and 
taught  them  to  come  at  the  sound  of  their  masters'  voice.  Ilirrias  was  the 
first  to  consecrate  fish-ponds  exclusively  to  Muraenae,  and  he  caused  six  thou- 
sand of  these  fishes  to  be  served  up  at  an  entertainment  given  to  Caesar  when 
he  was  made  Dictator. 

The  Gymnoti*  have  the  gill-openings  in  front  of  the  pectoral  fins,  and 
partially  closed  by  a  membrane.  One  of  them,, 

The  Gymnotns  Elecrnciis,  or  Electric  Bel,  is  celebrated  on  account  of  the  violent 
electric  shocks  it  has  the  power  of  communicating  at  will. 

The  electric  apparatus  extends  all  along  the  back  and  tail,  and  consists  of  four  longi- 
tudinal series  of  cells  filled  by  a  gelatinous  matter,  and  supplied  with  very  large  nerves. 
These  formidable  fishes  are  so  common  in  South  America,  that  the  roads  are  sometimes 
rendered  impassable  owing  to  the  number  of  them  infesting  the  streams  that  have  to  be 
crossed.  As  water  is  a  conductor  of  electricity,  a  person  may  be  struck  at  some  distance, 
and  small  fishes  are  killed  even  at  a  distance  of  fifteen  feet. 


TUFT-GILLED    FlSHES.      ORDER  LOPHOBRAXCHI.f 

Distinguished  by  the  branchiae  which,  instead  of  being  pecti- 
nate— that  is,  having  the 
form  of  the  teeth  of  a  comb, 
as  is  ordinarily  the  case — 
are  divided  into  small  round 
tufts,  arranged  in  pairs  along 

the  branchial  arches.  These  _v  «„.  M^.       ""  / 

curious    gills    are  enclosed  \      m1  \  Hfev 

under  a  large  operculum, 
attached  on  all  sides  by  a 
membrane,  and  having  only 
a  small  hole  for  the  escape 
of  water.  The  Lophobran- 
chiate  fishes  are  also  to  be 
recognized  by  the  mail-like 
plates  that  cover  the  body, 
and  render  it  angular  in 
shape :  they  are  of  small 
size.  To  this  Order  belong  FlG.  a79.-SEA_HoRSE. 

The  Sea-Horses  (Hippocampus}  J  :  their  body  is  laterally  compressed 
and  more  elevated  than  the  tail.  When  dried  after  death,  the  bead  and  trunk 
bear  some  resemblance  to  those  of  a  horse  in  miniature,  which  has  obtained 
for  this  little  fish  the  name  of  Sea-Horse. 

*  yvfi*6s,  gymnos,  naked;  VUJTOS,  notos,  the  back. 

f*  X60os,  lophos,  a  tit  ft ;  ppdvxta,  branchia,  gills:  having  tufted  gills. 

£  tTTTros,  hippos,  a  horse ;  Kd/j.irr),  campe,  a  ('cutting. 


262 


FISHES. 


ORDER  PLECTOGNATHI.* 

The  chief  distinctive  character  of  these  fishes  is  that  the  maxil- 
lary is  solidly  fixed  to  the  intermaxillary  bone,  and  the  whole 
united  to  the  cranium,  so  as  to  be  immoveable.  Moreover,  their 
opercula  are  concealed  beneath  a  thick  skin,  which  leaves  exter- 
nally only  a  small  branchial  slit.  They  have  no  true  ventral  fins. 

In  the  family  of  Grymnodonts  t  there  are  apparently  no  teeth, 
but  the  jaws  are  furnished  with  a  species  of  beak,  internally  di- 
vided into  plates,  which  form  a  grinding  surface.  To  this  family 
belong 

The  Globe-Fishes  (Diodoii)&  so  called  because  their  jaws  being  undivided 
have  each  but  a  single  tooth-like  piece,  and  the  Tetradons§,  in  which  both 
jaws  are  divided  in  the  middle,  so  as  to  present  the  appearance  of  four  teeth 
— two  above  and  two  below. 


*X&-* 

FIG.  280. — GLOBE  FISH. 

These  two  genera  of  fishes  have  the  faculty  of  swelling  themselves  up  like 
a  balloon  by  swallowing  air  :  this  peculiarity  has  obtained  for  them  the  com- 
mon names  of  "  Swell-fish,"  "  Porcupine-fish,"  "  Balloon-fish,"  &c.,  &c.,  and 
furnishes  them  with  a  means  of  defence,  for  when  the  skin  is  distended,  the 
spines  with  which  it  is  armed  become  everywhere  erect,  and  project  from  the 
whole  surface  of  the  body ;  when  thus  swollen,  they  turn  over,  the  belly  coming 
uppermost,  and  thus  they  float  on  the  surface  of  the  sea.  They  are  found  in 
tropical  climates. 

The  Sun-Fishes  (Orthagoriscus^  Mola  ^[),  sometimes  also  called  Moon- 
fishes^  resemble  the  Diodon  in  the  arrangement  of  their  jaws,  but  the  body  is 
compressed  and  of  a  strange  shape  ;  it  has  no  spines,  nor  is  it  susceptible  of 


*  7rXe/cr6?,  plectOS,  twisted,  conjoined;  yvdOos, 

gnathos,  the  jaw. 
*T  yvfiyfa,   gymnos,   naked ;     656v$,   686vTOs, 

odous,  odontos,  a  tooth. 
+  Si's,   clis,   double  ;    6d6vs,    odovros,    odous-, 

odontos,  a  toot!*. 


§  rer/xz,  tetra,  four;  656vs,  656vTost  odous, 

odontos,  a  tooth. 
||  opBayopiffKos,  orthagoriscos,  a  suking  - 

P& 

"\,  Mola,  a  mill  stone. 


FILE-FISHES. 


263 


inflation,  and  their  tall  is  so  short  and  so  high  vertically,  that  they  look  like 
fishes  with  the  hinder  part  cut  off.  One  species,  which  sometimes  attains 
more  than  four  feet  in  length,  weighing  about  three  hundred  pounds,  is  occa- 
sionally taken  off  our  own  coasts. 


FIG.  281. — SUN-FISH. 


FIG.  282.— FILE-FISH. 


The  File-Pishes  (Sderoderms}*  are  easily  distinguished  by  their  conical 
or  pyramidal  snout,  prolonged  from  the  eyes,  and  terminated  by  a  small  mouth 
armed  with  a  few  teeth  that  are  distinct  from  each  other.  Their  skin  is  gene- 
rally rough  or  covered  with  hard  scales  ;  some  of  them,  named 

Balistes,  have  a  compressed  body  covered  by  a  scaly  or  granular  skin  (not 
bony)  ;  they  have  eight  teeth,  generally  trenchant*  arranged  in  a  single  row  in 
each  jaw,  and  two  dorsal  fins.  They  are  found  in  great  numbers  in  the  torrid 
zone.  Others,  called 

Trunk-Fishes  (Ostracion)^  have,  instead  of  scales,  an  inflexible  coat  of 
mail  made  up  of  bony  plates,  which  covers  the  head  and  body,  so  that  they 
can  only  move  their  tails,  their  fins,  and  their  mouth,  all  of  which  protrude 
through  apertures  in  their  remarkable  armour.  Each  jaw  is  armed  with  ten 
or  twelve  conical  teeth.  They  are  common  on  the  coast  of  America. 


DIVISION  II.    CARTILAGINOUS  FISHES. 
ORDER  CHONDROPTERYGII.J 

The  Chondropterygii  differ  from  all  the  fishes  we  have  as  yet 
spoken  of  in  the  following  particulars.  Their  skeleton  is  carti- 
laginous, and  always  more  simple  in  >  its  conformation  than  that 

*  ovcAT/pos,  skleros,  hard ;  dep/j-a,  derma,  skin.  ^  ocrrpaKov,  ostracon,  a  shdl. 

s,  chondros,  cartilage ;  irrepi.'yLov,  pterygion,  a  Jin. 


264 


FISHES. 


of  osseous  fishes.  The  skull  is  composed  of  a  single  piece,  but 
shaped  in  other  respects  very  much  like  that  of  an  ordinary  fish. 
The  maxillary  and  intermaxillary  bones  do  not  exist,  or  are  found 
only  in  a  rudimentary  state,  concealed  beneath  the  skin.  The 
lower  jaw  is  constituted  of  one  piece  on  each  side,  and  the  oper- 
cular  apparatus  is  in  general  entirely  wanting. 

Sometimes  the  gills  are  free  on  their  external  edge,  as  in  the 
osseous  fishes ;  sometimes,  on  the  contrary,  they  are  attached  by 
both  edges,  and  from  this  circumstance  the  Chondropterygii  are 
divided  into  two  groups — 

1.  Those  with  free  branchiae  (Sturgeons) ; 

2.  Those  with  fixed  branchiae  (Sharks,  Rays,  &c.) 


CHONDROPTERYGII  WITH  FREE  BRANCHLE. 

The  Sturgeons  (Acipenser)  have  the  general  form  of  osseous  fishes  ;  their 
body  is  more  or  less  covered  with  plates  of  bone  embedded  in  the  skin  in  longi- 


FIG.  283.-  THE  STURGEON  (Acipenser  Sturio). 

tudinal  rows.  Their  mouth  is  adapted  for  suction  and  unprovided  with  teeth. 
These  fishes  are  generally  large,  and  endowed  with  considerable  muscular 
strength.  They  easily  stem  the  most  rapid  current,  and  can  strike  violent 
blows  with  their  tail ;  but  their  habits  are  ordinarily  peaceful,  and  they  are 
formidable  only  to  small  unarmed  prey.  They  feed  on  herrings,  mackerel, 
and  sometimes  salmon,  and  also  root  in  the  mud  for  worms  and  Mollusks.  In 
the  spring  they  ascend  certain  rivers  from  the  sea,  often  in  numerous  shoals, 


SHARKS.  265 


to  deposit  their  eggs.  Their  fecundity  is  very  great.  We  are  assured  that 
1.500,000  eggs  have  been  found  in  a  single  female  that  weighed  270  Ibs.,  and 
in  another  weighing  2,800  Ibs.,  the  spawn  alone  weighed  Soo  Ibs. 

The  young  ones  seek  the  sea  very  early,  and  remain  there  till  full  grown. 
The  flesh  is  wholesome  ;  and  from  their  eggs  a  kind  of  food  is  prepared,  much 
esteemed  in  the  north  of  Europe,  called  caviar.  It  is  chiefly  from  the  swim- 
ming-bladder of  these  fishes  that  isinglass  is  manufactured. 

The  Polyodon,  or  Spatularia,  a  fish  allied  to  the  sturgeon,  is  found  in  the 
Mississippi  :  it  is  remarkable  for  an  enormous  prolongation  of  the  muzzle,  to 
which  its  wide  borders  give  the  figure  of  a  leaf.  The  mouth  is  well  cleft  and 
furnished  with  several  small  teeth. 

The  Chimseras  form  a  connecting-link  between  the  preceding 

and  the  Sharks. 


FIG.  284.— NORTHERN-  CH 


CHONDROPTERYGII  WITH   FIXED   BRANCH!*. 

In  this  division  of  cartilaginous  fishes  the  gills,  instead  of  being 
free  on  their  external  edge,  and  suspended  in  a  common  cavity, 
from  which  the  water  escapes  by  a  single  opening,  are  adherent 
to  the  skin,  so  that  for  the  escape  of  the  water  that  passes  over 
them  there  are  as  many  openings  as  there  are  intervals  between 
the  branchiae.  In  other  respects  these  fishes  differ  very  much 
from  each  other.  They  are  divided  into  two  sub-orders,  distin- 
guished by  the  structure  of  their  jaws,  viz., 

The  Plagiostoraes*  and  the  Cyclostomes.f 

SUB-ORDER   OE.  TEAGIOSTOMES. 

This  sub-order  comprises  the  Sharks  and  the  Rays  or  Skates. 
They  have  both  pectoral  and  ventral  fins,  five  branchial  openings 
on  each  side  of  the  neck,  or  on  its  inferior  face,  and  jaws  armed 
with  many  teeth.  They  lay  eggs  covered  with  a  hard  horny  shell 
(Fig.  286). 

The  Sharks  (Squalidai)  are  recognizable  by  their  general  form,  which 

*  TrAcfyto?,  plagios,  oblique  ;  <rr6/za,  stoma,  the  mouth  :  having  their  mouths  placed  trans- 
versely,    t  KIJK\OS,  cycles,  a  circle  ;  cro/za,  stoma,  the  mouth  :  having  circular  mouths. 


266 


WISHES. 


FIG.  285. — HAMMER-SHARK  AND  SAW-FISH. 

differs  but  little  from  that  of  ordinary  fishes.     Their  skin  is  covered  with  a 
multitude  of  small  spines  of  stony  hardness,  and  becomes  very  rough  on  dry- 


FIG.  286.— SHARK'S  EGG. 


ing,  so  as  to  form  a  sort  of  file  (shagreen),  much  employed  in  the  arts  for 
polishing  hard  bodies,  such  as  ivory.  Among  these  tyrants  of  the  deep  we 
may  select  for  special  notice 


SHARKS. 


267 


The  "WTlite  Shark  (Squalus  Carcharias},  which  attains  twenty-five  or  thirty  feet 
in  length,  and  is  celebrated  for  its  ferocity.  Its  vast  mouth  is  furnished  with  triangular 
moveable  teeth,  the  number  of  which  increases  with  age.  In  the  young  there  is  but  a 
single  row,  in  the  adult  six.  The  strength  of  this  fish  is  very  great,  and  its  motions 
rapid  ;  its  voracity  knows  no  bounds  ;  hence  it  is  amongst  the  most  dangerous  of  ani- 
mals. Men  frequently  become  its  victims,  and  as  many  as  eight  or  ten  tunnies  have 
been  found  at  once  in  its  stomach.  Seals,  tunnies,  and  cod-fish  are  the  ordinary  food 
of  sharks,  but  they  attack  dead  bodies,  and  even  devour  each  other. 


FIG.  288.— GREENLAND  SHARK. 

The  shark,  indeed,  is  omnivorous  ;  he  will  swallow  anything,  from  tin  pots  and  canvas 
to  fat  pork  and  anchovies.  In  the  stomach  of  one  taken  in  the  harbour  at  Sydney  were 
found  half  a  ham,  several  legs  of  mutton,  the  hind  quarter  of  a  pig,  the  head  and  fore 
legs  of  a  bull-dog,  with  a  rope  round  its  neck,  a  quantity  of  horseflesh,  a  piece  of  sack- 
ing, and  a  ship's  scraper.  This  catalogue  would  form  an  interesting  fact  for  a  work  on 
"Digestion  and  its  Derangements/'  From  the  liver  of  this  fish  twelve  gallons  of  oil 
were  obtained. — DR.  BENNETT. 

The  Greenland  Shark  (Lccmargus  borealis}  is  a  large  animal,  twelve  or  fourteen 
feet  in  length  or  more,  and  six  or  eight  in  circumference.  It  is  harmless  to  man,  but 
an  enemy  to  whales,  biting  and  tearing  these  superior  monsters  when  alive,  and  eating 


263 


FISHES. 


them  up  when  they  die,  gorging  itself  with  blubber,  like  an  Esquimaux,  scooping  hemi- 
spherical pieces,  each  as  large  as  a  man's  head,  out  of  the  whale's  body,  and  swallow- 
ing as  much  as  ever  it  can,  until  it  has  so  rilled  itself  that  it  has  no  place  wherein  to 
stow  away  any  more ;  heeding  no  annoyance,  not  even  the  stab  of  a  knife,  at  dinner- 
time, and  contenting  itself  with  a  fasting  diet  of  small  fishes  and  crabs  on  those  days 
when  whale-beef  is  not  to  be  procured. — MR.  AUSTEN. 

The  Saw-Fishes  (Pristis]  (Fig.  285)  are  especially  distinguished  by  their 
very  long  snout,  in  the  form  of  a  sword- blade,  armed  on  each  edge  with  strong 
bony  spines,  which  are  pointed  and  cutting:  this  terrible  weapon  enables  its 
possessor  fearlessly  to  attack  the  largest  whales.  The  teeth  covering  the  jaws 
resemble  a  pavement  of  small  pebbles.  The  Common  Saw-Fish  attains  a  length 
of  twelve  or  fifteen  feet. 

The  Skates  (Raici)  form  a  large  tribe,  of  which  the  common  Thornback  is 
a  familiar  example.  Fishes  of  this  family  are  recognizable  by  their  body  being 
horizontally  flattened,  a  conformation  principally  due  to  the  disposition  of  their 


THORN-BACK. 


FIG.  290. — TORPEDO. 


pectoral  fins ;  these  are  extremely  broad  and  fleshy,  and  joined  to  each  other 
or  to  the  muzzle  in  front,  and  extend  backwards  on  both  sides  of  the  abdomen, 
nearly  to  the  base  of  the  ventral  fins.  The  eyes  are  placed  upon  the  back  of 
the  head.  The  mouth,  the  nostrils,  and  the  openings  of  the  branchiae  are  on 
the  ventral  surface  of  the  body ;  the  dorsal  fins  are  situated  upon  the  tail, 
which  is  very  slender.  Our  coast  furnishes  many  species. 

To  this  family  belong 

The  Torpedos,  or  Electric  Rays,  celebrated  for  their  power  of  giving 
electric  shocks.  Their  electric  apparatus  consists  of  a  multitude  of  vertical 


LAMPREYS. 


269 


membranous  tubes  placed  close  together  like  the  cells  of  a  honeycomb  :  the 
cells  are  filled  with  mucus  and  largely  supplied  with  nerves.  The  torpedos 
are  less  powerfully  electrical  than  the  Gymnoti,  but  can  nevertheless  benumb 
the  arm  of  a  person  touching  them,  hence  they  are  called  Cramp- Fishes.  They 
probably  use  their  electrical  batteries  as  a  means  of  obtaining  their  prey.  They 
are  frequently  met  with  upon  our  southern  coasts. 

SUB-ORDER  OF   CYCLOSTOMES. 

This  sub-order  of  cartilaginous  fishes  is  characterized  by  the 
singular  conformation  of  the  mouth,  which  is  circular  and  adapted 
for  suction.  Their  body  is  elongated,  naked,  and  slimy,  and  they 
have  neither  pectoral  nor  ventral  fins  ;  such  are 

The  Lampreys  (Petromyzon),*  recognizable  by  seven  branchial  openings 
placed  on  each  side  of  the  neck,  and  by  their  circular  mouth,  armed  with 
several  ranges  of  strong  teeth ;  the  tongue  is  also  furnished  with  teeth,  and  is 
carriedfforward  and  backward  like  a  piston,  thus  enabling  the  animal  to  use 
its  mouth  not  only  to  suck  in  the  materials  upon  which  it  feeds,  but  to  attach 
itself  to  solid  bodies.  The  skin  of  these  fishes  above  and  below  the  tail  is 
raised  into  a  vertical  crest,  which  takes  the  place  of  fins. 


FIG.  291. — I^AMPREV. 


The  Sea-Lamprey  (Petromyson  mar  inns]  is  two  or  three  feet  long,  and  marbled 
with  brown  on  a  yellowish  ground.  It  inhabits  the  coasts  both  of  Europe  and  America, 
and  in  the  spring  ascends  rivers  to  deposit  its  eggs.  It  ordinarily  preys  upon  marine 
Mollusca  or  fragments  of  dead  animals ;  but  it  also  attaches  itself  to  large  fishes,  and 
succeeds  in  piercing  their  skin  and  destroying  them.  I:s  flesh  is  much  esteemed. 


FIG.  292. — RIVER-LAMPREY. 

The  Fresh-Water  or  River-Lamprey  (Pdromyzon  flirciatilis]  is  a  smaller 
species,  seldom  exceeding  eighteen  inches  in  length ;  it  passes  the  greater  part  of  the 

*  Tre'rpos,  petros,  a  stone ;  /4i5fw,  myzo,  to  suck. 


270  REPTILES. 


year  in  fresh-water  lakes,  which  it  abandons  in  the  spring  to  enter  rivers.     Its  colour  is 
dark  olive,  yellowish  and  silvery  beneath. 

A  third  species  is 

'  The  Lampern,  or  Small  River-Lamprey,  about  eight  or  ten  inches  in  length ;  it 
also  inhabits  fresh  waters,  and  is  distinguished  from  the  former  by  its  dorsal  crests, 
which  are  continuous  or  united  instead  of  being  distinct. 

The  Hag-Fishes  (Myxine)*  have  the  mouth  armed  above  by  a  single 
fang-like  tooth,  while  the  tongue  is  furnished  on  each  side  with  two  horny 
plates  deeply  serrated,  so  that  at  first  sight  they  might  be  supposed  to  be  lateral 
jaws,  like  those  of  articulated  animals.  In  other  respects  the  organization  of 


FIG.  293. — MYXIXE. 

the  hag-fish  resembles  that  of  lampreys.  Their  body  is  cylindrical,  and  fur- 
nished posteriorly  with  a  crest  that  surrounds  the  tail ;  their  mouth  is  Circular, 
surrounded  by  eight  cirrhi,  and  its  upper  margin  is  pierced  by  a  spiracle.  They 
have  no  vestiges  of  eyes,  and  their  body  is  lubricated  with  a  great  quantity  of 
mucus.  Thus  provided,  the  Myxine,  when  it  attacks  its  prey,  uses  its  mouth 
like  a  cupping-glass — plunging  its  fang  into  the  flesh  of  its  victim,  and  thus 
securing  a  firm  hold :  the  lingual  saws  tear  their  way  into  its  very  vitals. 

The  Ammocsetes,  f  the  lowest  of  the  Myxines,  have  a  completely  soft  and 
membranous  skeleton.  They  keep  in  the  mud  of  small  streams,  and  exhibit 
many  of  the  habits  of  worms,  which  they  also  resemble  in  their  shape. 


CHAPTER   XXIV. 
SECOND  CLASS  OF  VERTEBRATE  ANIMALS. 

REPTILES.! 


•i- 


THE  word  Reptile  simply  means  that  the  animals  so  desig- 
nated creep  or  crawl  upon  the  ground,  and,  in  a  general 
sense,  is  sufficiently  applicable  to  the  class  that  next  offers  itself 
to  our  contemplation.  In  some,  their  unwieldy  body,  scarcely 
supported  by  their  short  and  stunted  limbs,  presents  an  uncouth 
and  hideous  appearance  ;  whilst  others,  furnished  with  no  limbs 
at  all,  progress  with  serpentine  movement  along  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  These  animals  have  ever  been  looked  upon  by  mankind 
with  involuntary  abhorrence,  and,  by  all  nations,  either  despised 
for  their  stupidity  or  dreaded  for  their  malignity. 


*  fivt-tvos,  myxinos,  slime-fish.  t  Uytt/zoj,  ammos,  sand  ;  x^'7"7?*  chaite,  horse-hair. 

+  Repto,  to  creep  or  craivl. 


REPTILES.  271 


The  naturalist,  however,  finds  that  the  power  of  the  Almighty 
is  manifested  with  as  much  glory  in  these  vile  objects  of  universal 
detestation  as  in  the  more  favoured  races  of  creation.  He  sees 
nothing  in  the  class  of  Reptiles  but  animals  singular  in  their  forms, 
curious  in  their  structure,  marvellous  in  their  metamorphoses,  and 
admirably  adapted  by  their  habits  to  the  duties  imposed  upon 
their  different  races.  Few  beings,  indeed,  are  more  worthy  of  the 
attention  of  the  thinking  observer  than  these  proscribed  and  per- 
secuted creatures  ;  and,  as  the  reader  need  not  fear  to  accompany 
us  into  their  gloomy  haunts,  we  may  at  least  peep  behind  the 
broken  masses  of  rock  where  they  hide,  display  them  coiled  up 
beneath  the  rotting  vegetation  of  the  forest,  see  them  swimming 
in  the  streams  or  wallowing  in  the  marshes,  and  observe  the 
mechanism  by  which  they  have  been  enabled  to  creep,  or  climb, 
or  walk,  or  run,  or  leap,  or  even  fly.  Neither  are  they  ill  adapted 
for  their  appointed  localities,  or  inharmonious  with  the  scene 
around  them.  It  is  in  the  dismal  swamps  of  tropical  regions  that 
we  must  see  the  Reptile  races  in  their  full  luxuriance — where  the 
rivers  slowly  roll  along  their  sluggish  waves,  or  spread  out  in 
broad  swamps,  which  far  and  wide  cover  the  alluvial  slime  they 
have  deposited.  These  vast  morasses,  steaming  with  foetid  fogs 
and  pestiferous  exhalations,  alternately  inundated  and  left  dry, 
where  earth  and  water  appear  to  contend  for  undefined  posses- 
sion, are  peopled  only  by  the  Reptile  forms  indigenous  to  such 
localities.  Enormous  serpents,  trailing  their  length  along,  impress 
the  miry  soil  with  tortuous  tracks.  Crocodiles  and  toads  -knead 
with  their  sprawling  feet  the  yielding  clay ;  huge  alligators  lurk 
in  ambush,  and  a  thousand  hideous  things  withdraw  themselves 
from  observation.  The  reptile  occupying  this  intermediate  do- 
main, between  the  waters  and  the  land,  is  neither  a  perfect  quad- 
ruped nor  a  true  fish,  but  a  sort  of  ambiguous  production  sharing 
the  attributes  of  both.  Let  us,  however,  examine  their  structure 
a  little  more  closely. 

In  Reptiles  the  circulation  is  arranged  in  such  a  manner  that 
the  heart,  at  each  contraction,  sends  into  the  lungs  only  a  small 
portion  of  the  blood  received  from  the  various  parts  of  the  body  ; 
so  that  the  bulk  of  the  circulating  fluid  returns  to  the  system 
without  having  passed  through  the  lungs  and  undergone  the 
process  of  respiration. 

It  is  respiration  that  communicates  to  the  blood  its  heat  and 
to  the  muscles  their  irritability.  We  find,  therefore,  that  Reptiles 
have  cold  blood,  and  that  their  muscular  power  is,  upon  the  whole, 


272 


REPTILES. 


less  than  that  of  the  quadrupeds  and  birds.  Accordingly,  their 
movements  are  generally  confined  to  those  of  creeping  and  swim- 
ming ;  and  although  many  of  them  can  leap  and  run  quickly  upon 
some  occasions,  their  general  habits  are  lazy,  their  digestion  ex- 
cessively slow,  their  sensations  obtuse,  and  in  cold  and  temperate 
climates  they  pass  almost  the  entire  winter  in  a  state  of  lethargy. 
Not  possessing  warm  blood,  they  have  no  occasion  for  clothing 
capable  of  retaining  heat,  and  they  are  consequently  covered  with 
scales,  or  simply  with  a  naked  skin.  As  another  consequence  of 
their  want  of  vital  warmth,  no  reptile  sits  upon  its  eggs,  which 
frequently  have  only  a  membranous  envelope,  and  are  left  to  be 
hatched  entirely  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  or  of  the  soil  in  which 
they  are  deposited. 

The  class  of  Reptiles  is  of  great  extent,  and  embraces  many 
forms  of  animals  that  differ  widely  from  each  other  both  in  their 
structure  and  habits  ;  they  may,  however,  be  grouped  under  four 
principal  sections,  characterized  as  in  the  following  table : 


Covered    by    a 

carapax.   Jaws 

without     teeth 
and  covered 

Chelonia,  p.  303. 

/Having  limbs 

with    a    horny 

^  Undergoing  no 

Furnished, 

•     V                                           ( 

beak  .... 

w 

metamorpho- 
sis. Respiration 

with    move-  ^ 
able  eyelids. 

Without  a  cara- 
p  a  x.       Jaws 

M 

always    aerial. 
No    branchiae 

armed     with 
teeth  and  with- 

•Sauria,  p.  296. 

fa 

at     any    time. 

a  horny  enve- 

§ 

Body    covered 

\  lope  . 

" 

with    scales, 

^  (     rings,oracara- 

Destitute  of  limbs  ;    generally  ") 

0 

pax    ,     .     .     . 

without  moveable  eyelids  ;  pro-  >  Ophidia,  p.  287. 

v  vided  with  teeth     ) 

02 

Undergo  a  transformation  in  early  life.  Respiration  ~\ 

^ 

at  first  aquatic,  and  effected  by  the  aid  of  gills  —  / 

0 

then  aerial  and  pulmonary.     Skin  naked,  with-  >  Amphibia,  p.  273. 

out  carapax  or  scales  ;  no  nails.     Almost  always  I 

REPTILES.  "  273 

CHAPTER    XXV. 
ORDER  AMPHIBIA.* 

globe  that  we  inhabit  is  usually  said  to  be  made  up  of 
JL  land  and  water,  and,  perhaps,  for  the  purposes  of  the  geo- 
grapher, such  a  division  is  all  that  is  requisite.  A  little  reflection, 
however,  will  convince  the  naturalist  that  a  very  considerable 
portion  of  the  earth  around  us  can  scarcely  be  referred  to  either 
of  these  geographical  sections.  That  there  are  extensive  marshes, 
for  example,  equally  unfit  to  be  the  habitation  of  aquatic  animals 
as  of  creatures  adapted  to  a  purely  terrestrial  existence ;  that  some 
localities  may  be  alternately  deluged  with  water  and  parched  with 
drought :  thus  the  margins  of  our  lakes,  the  banks  of  our  rivers, 
and  the  shallow  pools  and  streamlets  of  warm  climates,  can  only 
be  adequately  populated  by  beings  of  an  amphibious  character, 
alike  capable  of  living  in  an  aquatic  or  in  an  aeriform  medium, 
and  combining  in  their  structure  the  conditions  necessary  for 
enabling  them  to  reside  in  either  element. 

Aquatic  animals,  strictly  so  called,  breathe  by  means  of  gills  : 
to  adapt  a  Vertebrate  animal  to  respire  air,  it  must  be  provided 
with  lungs,  consisting  of  membranous  bags,  more  or  less  divided 
internally  into  numerous  cells,  into  which  the  blood-vessels  spread 
like  an  admirable  network,  fitted  for  appropriating  oxygen  from 
the  air  of  the  atmosphere,  instead  of  from  water.  But  if  a  crea- 
ture is  destined  to  live  both  in  air  and  in  water,  it  must  obviously 
be  provided  with  both  gills  and  lungs  coexistent,  either  of  which 
may  be  employed  in  conformity  with  the  necessities  of  the  mo- 
ment. We  cannot,  therefore,  be  surprised  that,  in  the  lowest  Rep- 
tiles, this  is  literally  the  arrangement  adopted  :  that  they  respire, 
like  fishes,  by  means  of  branchiae  or  gills  while  in  the  water, 
whereas  on  emerging  into  the  air  they  have  lungs  at  their  disposal. 
Such,  for  example,  is  the  case  with 

The  Mud-Fish  (Lepidpsiren  t  Protopterus  J).  These  animals  are  met  with 
both  in  Africa  and  America ;  they  are  only  found  in  the  ditches  of  the  rice- 
fields,  which  are  for  more  than  half  the  year  under  water,  while  during  the 
other  half  they  are  dry.  While  the  tropical  rains  continue,  or  as  long  as  the 
waters  prevail,  the  creature  breathes  by  gills,  and  lives  the  life  of  a  fish,  which 
in  outward  form  it  much  resembles  ;  but  when  the  water  begins  to  dry  up,  it 

*a/A0t'j,  amphis,  both  ;  jStow,  bioo,  to  live:  living  in  two  elements. 

,  lepis — lepidos,  a  scale',  siren,  an  animal  noticed  further  on — Scaly  Siren. 
,  protos,  first;  Trrepbv,  pteron,  a  icing  Q^  fin — i.e.,  with  rudimentary  fins. 

IS 


274  REPTILES. 


burrows  into  the  mud  that  a  vertical  sun  speedily  bakes  into  a  hard  crust.  An 
aperture,  however,  is  left  in  this  clayey  cell,  by  which  air  is  admitted,  and 
therein  the  mud-fish,  enveloped  in  a  thick  coat  of  slime,  passes  the  dry  season, 
rolled  up  and  in  a  torpid  condition.  In  this  state  they  are  dug  out  of  the 
ground  like  potatoes  and  fried  like  eels. 


FIG.  294. — MUD-FISH. 

The  Lepidosiren  above  described,  from  its  scaly  covering,  seems 
properly  to  belong  to  the  class  of  Fishes,  notwithstanding  its 
amphibious  capabilities ;  but  there  are  numerous  creatures  de- 
cidedly reptilian  equally  provided  with  both'  kinds  of  respiratory 
apparatus. 

The  number  of  animals  that  in  their  adult  state  are  so  furnished 
is  very  small ;  but  there  are  many  which  at  an  early  period  of 
their  existence  are  thus  organized,  and  at  different  periods  of  their 
lives  possess  both  lungs  and  gills.  Some  of  these,  when  very 
young,  have  gills  only,  and,  like  fishes,  respire  water ;  but  as  they 
advance  in  age,  the  gills  become  obliterated  and  lungs  are  deve- 
loped. 

Such  are  the  frogs,  toads,  and  newts,  called,  from  this  circum- 
stance, Caducibranchiate  *  A  mpkibia,  or  amphibious  animals  with 
perishable  gills.  In  another  group  the  gills  are  persistent  through 
life,  even  after  the  lungs  are  completely  formed ;  and,  of  course, 
animals  so  provided  can  live  indifferently  either  in  the  air  or  in 
water.  These  are  called  Perennibranchiate-\  Amphibia,  or  amphi- 
bious animals  with  perennial  or  persistent  gills. 

Animals  of  this  description  present  many  characters  in  com- 
mon :  instead  of  being  covered  with  scales,  their  skin  is  naked, 
smooth,  and  often  moist.  Their  body  is  either  depressed  and 
squat,  as  the  toad  and  frog,  elongated  like  the  salamanders  or 
newts,  or  worm-like  as  in  the  Caecilias.  The  head  is  flattened 
and  joined  to  the  body  without  the  intervention  of  a  neck.  They 
have  no  ribs,  and  their  toes  are  not  furnished  with  claws  or  nails. 
The  Amphibia  thus  distinguished  are  classified  as  follows : 

*  Caducus,  easily  falling;  branchice,  gills.          f  Perennis,  perennial;  branchiae,  gills. 


BLIND    WORMS. 

275 

02 

/bo^.  > 

Without  limbs  at  any  period  .... 

Apoda. 

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u-*-Jr'-' 

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t—  i 

ft  a, 

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«  ^ 
1§ 

>  Without  gills  at  any  period      .... 

.    Abranchia. 

H 

3   5 
w 

PH 

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Perennibran 

chia. 

02 

AH    *-i 

D 

oi 

o 

1—  1 

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It 

0    ° 

In  early  life  provided  (  Having  a  tail  . 
with  gills  that  subse-  1 

.    Urodela. 

HH 

"§1 

quently  disappear.     .  ^  Tailless  ^ 

.    Anoura. 

^ 

ID  o 

«l 

£ 

FOOTLESS  AMPHIBIA. 

APODA.* 

The  Amphibia,  which,  from  their  total  want  of  limbs,  have  been 
termed  Apoda,  so  much  resemble  snakes  in  their  general  form, 
and  even  in  some  particulars  of  their  internal  structure,  that  Cuvier 
arranged  them  with  the  serpents,  and  by  the  superficial  observer 
they  might  almost  be  mistaken  for  worms ;  such  are 


FIG.  295. — TWO-LINED  CECILIA. 

The  Blind  Worms  (CcEcilia)^  The  body  of  these  creatures  is  very  nearly 


a,  a,  without;  TTOVS,  TroSos,  pous,  podos,  afoot:  footless. 


f  Csecus,  blind. 
18 — 2 


276 


REPTILES. 


cylindrical.  Their  skin  is  smooth,  and  transversely  furrowed  by  annular 
wrinkles.  At  first  sight  it  appears  to  be  completetly  naked  ;  but  on  dissection 
small  and  extremely  thin  scales  are  found.  The  eyes,  which  are  very  small, 
are  concealed  beneath  the  skin,  and  sometimes  are  entirely  wanting.  These 
reptiles  inhabit  humid  and  shady  places,  make  holes  in  the  ground,  and  seem 
to  feed  on  vegetable  substances  as  well  as  on  worms  and  small  insects ;  they 
are  found  in  South  America  and  in  the  East  Indies.  Gills  are  said  to  have 
been  discovered  in  a  young  specimen,  but  no  trace  of  them  is  to  be  seen  in 
the  adult. 

AMPHIBIA  WITHOUT  GILLS. 

ABRANCHIAL 

A  few  creatures  found  in  the  Southern  United  States  consti- 
tute this  limited  group.      They  are  exceedingly  like  eels — the 


FIG.  296.— TWO-TOED  A.MPHILT.IA. 


body  being  greatly  lengthened,  smooth,  and  flexible  ;  and  though 
they  have  four  limbs,  these  are  so  minute,  so  rudimentary,  and 
placed  so  far  apart,  as  scarcely  to  affect  this  eel-like  contour. 
The  toes  on  their  feet  are  scarcely  more  than  little  pimples. 


*  a,  a  -without; 


branchia,  gills. 


SALAMANDER.  277 


These  animals  appear  to  form  an  exception  to  the  universality 
of  metamorphosis  in  the  class.  They  habitually  reside  in  the 
water,  but  are  exclusively  air-breathers,  no  gills  having  been 
observed  at  any  stage  of  their  life,  though  there  is  an  orifice  on 
each  side  of  the  neck.  The  eyes  are  small,  and  the  bones  of  the 
spine  present,  both  in  front  and  rear,  that  concavity  which  marks, 
the  vertebrce  of  fishes.  To  this  Order  belong 

The  Amphiumas,  called  by  the  negroes,  who  erroneously  believe  them 
to  be  exceedingly  venomous,  "  Congo  Snakes"  They  live  in  muddy  waters 
or  in  mud,  being  sometimes  found  three  feet  deep  in  mud  of  the  consistence 
of  mortar,  into  which  they  burrow  like  an  earthworm.  They  inhabit  the 
ditches  of  rice-fields,  and  feed  on  small  fish  and  fresh-water  mussels,  beetles, 
and  other  insects.  Sometimes  they  are  found  on  dry  land.  They  pass  the 
winter  season  in  the  mud,  collecting  together  at  that  time  in  great  numbers, 
and  remain  in  torpidity  till  the  spring. 

The  Gigantic  Salamander  (Sieboldia  maxima}  was  discovered  by  the  cele- 
brated naturalist  Von  Siebold,  in  Japan.  It  is  a  hideous-looking  animal,  with  four 
toes  on  the  front  and  five  on  the  hind  feet. 


FIG.  297. — GIGANTIC  SALAMANDER. 

Another  species  met  with  in  the  fresh  waters  of  North  America  has  received 
from  our  Anglo-American  brethren  the  pretty  names  of 

The  "Hell-Bender,"  the  "Mud-devil"  and  many  others  equally  expressive  of 
esteem  and  regard. 

AMPHIBIA  WITH  PERMANENT  GILLS. 
PERENNIBRANCIIIATA. 

This  family  is  composed  of  animals  that  always  preserve  their 
branchiae,  and  resemble  in  their  structure  the  tadpoles  of  newts. 
Indeed,  they  were  at  first  regarded  as  being  the  young  of  some 
large  species  of  Triton ;  but  there  is  now  no  doubt  of  their  being 
perfect  animals,  and  what  is  very  remarkable,  possessing  as  they 
do  well-developed  branchia,  they  have  also  lungs,  and  are  conse- 
quently completely  amphibious.  Their  body  terminates  in  a  long 


278 


REPTILES. 


vertical  tail ;  their  limbs  are  but  little  developed,  and  the  hinder 
pair  are  sometimes  wanting,  Four  genera  are  known,  namely, 
the  Axolotus,  the  Menobranchus,  the  Proteus,  and  the  Siren. 

The  Axolotle  (Axolotus)  in  every  respect  resembles  the  tadpoles  of  sala- 
manders that  have  acquired  both  their  fore  and  hind  legs.  The  gills  project 
from  orifices  on  each  side  of  the  neck,  and  take  the  form  of  branched  tufts,  as 
may  be  seen  in  the  accompanying  figure,  representing  the  Axolotus  pisci- 
formis,  an  animal  inhabiting  the  lakes  of  Mexico.  It  is  about  ten  inches  in 
'length.  It  is  said  to  be  commonly  sold  in  the  markets  of  Mexico,  and  to  be 
esteemed  as  a  luxury  by  the  inhabitants,  dressed  in  the  manner  of  stewed 
eels,  and  served  up  with  rich  sauce.  Humboldt  declares  that  he  found  it 


FIG.  298.— AXOLOTLE. 

savoury  and  wholesome.     Lake  Champlain,  in  Canada,  produces  a  species 
much  resembling  this,  but  three  or  four  times  as  large. 

The  Snake-like  Proteus  (Proteus  angnmus).  The  native  place  and  abode  of  the 
Proteus  is  the  water  in  some  subterranean  caverns  in  the  limestone  of  the  south  of  Europe, 
as,  for  example,  in  that  of  Adelsburg  in  Carniola.  This  cavern  was  visited  by  the  late 
Sir  Humphry  Davy,  who  has  left  us  a  very  interesting  account  of  it  and  its  strange  in- 
habitant. "At  first  view,  you  might  suppose  this  animal  to  be  a  lizard,  but  it  has  the 
motions  of  a  fish.  Its  head  and  the  lower  part  of  its  body  all  bear  a  strong  resemblance 
to  an  eel ;  but  it  has  no  fins,  and  its  curious  branchial  organs  are  not  like  the  gills  of 
fishes.  They  form  a  singular  vascular  structure  almost  like  a  crest  round  the  throat, 
and  they  may  be  removed  without  causing  the  death  of  the  animal,  which  has  also  lungs. 
With  this  double  apparatus  it  can  live  either  in  or  out  of  water.  Its  fore  feet  resemble 
hands  ;  but  they  have  only  three  fingers,  and  are  too  feeble  to  be  of  any  use  in  support- 
ing the  weight  of  the  animal,  while  the  hinder  feet  have  only  two  claws  or  toes. " 


PROTEUS. 


279 


FIG.  299. — PROTEUS. 

The  Mud  Eel  (Siren  lacertina}  almost  exactly  resembles  an  eel  in  its  general  shape ; 
but,  instead  of  fins,  has  legs.  These,  however,  are  only  two  in  number,  representing 
the  anterior  pair ;  they  are  very  short  and  feeble,  and  of  little  service  in  progression, 


FIG.  300. — SKELETON  OF  SIREN. 

either  when  in  the  water  or  on  land ;  they  are  terminated  by  four  toes.  These  animals, 
as  the  English  name  indicates,  live  chiefly  in  mud,  and  are  abundant  in  the  rice-fields 
of  Carolina,  where,  when  the  ditches  are  cleared,  they  are  often  thrown  out  in  great 
numbers.  Being  regarded  as  venomous  by  the  slaves,  they  are  instantly  killed  or 
dreadfully  mangled.  Sometimes  they  leave  the  soft  mud,  in  which  they  usually  bur- 
row, and  take  to  the  water,  where  they  swim  with  great  quickness.  They  are  occa- 
sionally taken  by  persons  angling  with  a  bait  of  earthworms.  Sometimes,  like  eels, 
they  leave  the  water  and  are  found  on  dry  land.  A  specimen,  which  was  kept  alive  in 
the  Zoological  Gardens  in  the  Regent's  Park,  devoured  about  a  dozen  and  P.  half  of 
earthworms  dailv. 


280 


REPTILES. 


BATRACHIAN  AMPHIBIA. 


The  name  BatracJdan  (from  the  Greek  parpdxos,  a  frog)  is  given 
to  those  Amphibians  that  resemble  a  frog  in  their  structure  and 
general  habits.  All  the  Batrachians,  when  young,  undergo  a 
series  of  transformations  or  metamorphoses,  so  that  they  enter 
life  under  an  entirely  different  form  from  that  which  they  after- 
wards assume.  In  their  first  condition  they  are  usually  designated 

Tadpoles.  When  the  young  tadpole  first  leaves  the  egg  it  resembles  a 
little  fish,  and  can  live  only  in  water.  Its  head  is  very  large,  its  belly  protu- 
berant, and  its  body  quite  destitute  of  limbs  ;  it  is  provided  with  a  compressed 

tail,  which  subsequently  be- 
comes elongated  and  much 
expanded.  Its  mouth  is  a» 
small,  scarcely  perceptible 
hole,  and  its  branchiae  consist 
only  of  a  tubercle  placed  on 
each  side  of  the  hinder  part 
of  the  head.  These  appen- 
dages, however,  very  soon 
lengthen  and  become  divided 
into  shreds  (Fig.  301  a).  The 
eyes  grow  perceptible  through 
the  skin,  and  a  small  trans- 
verse slit  appears  under  the 
neck,  forming  a  sort  of  mem- 
branous operculum.  A  little 
later  the  branchiae  become  ramified,  and  the  lips  are  covered  with  aminute  horny 
beak,  by  the  aid  of  which  the  little  animal  fixes  itself  to  vegetables  that  form  its 
chief  food  ;  but  this  state  does  not  last  long.  At  the  end  of  a  few  days  the  bran- 
chial fringes,  appended  to  each  side  of  the  neck,  begin  to  disappear  (Fig.  301  b], 
and  respiration  is  carried  on  by  means  of  small  tufts  of  blood-vessels,  placed 
along  four  cartilaginous  arches  situated  under  the  throat.  A  membranous 
tunic,  covered  by  the  skin,  envelopes  these  internal  branchiae,  to  which  the 
water  arrives  by  the  mouth,  and,  after  having  laved  these  organs,  escapes 
through  one  or  two  external  slits,  the  situation  of  which  varies  a  little  in  different 
species.  The  respiratory  apparatus  now  essentially  resembles  that  of  fishes. 
Some  time  afterwards  the  hinder  legs  of  the  tadpole  show  themselves,  and  are 
developed  little  by  little  (Fig.  301  c}.  These  attain  considerable  length  before 
the  front  legs  are  perceived  beneath  the  skin,  which  at  a  later  period  they 
penetrate.  About  the  same  time  the  horny  beak  falls  off,  leaving  the  jaws 
unencumbered.  The  tail  begins  to  waste  away  ;  the  lungs  are  developed,  and, 
in  proportion  as  these  organs  become  more  exclusively  the  seat  of  respiration, 
the  branchiae  fade  and  disappear.  Finally,  in  frogs  and  toads  the  tail  is 
altogether  lost,  the  animal  assumes  the  form  that  it  preserves  through  life, 
and  completely  changes  its  regimen.  From  being  at  first  herbivorous,  it 
gradually  becomes  exclusively  carnivorous,  and  all  its  digestive  apparatus  is 
changed  accordingly.  The  period  of  these  changes  varies  from  about  four  to 
eight  weeks,  according  to  the  species  ;  and  it  has  been  ascertained  that  different 


FIG.  301.— TADPOLES. 


SALAMANDERS.  281 


circumstances  may  considerably  hasten  or  retard  the  completion  of  their  me- 
tamorphosis. A  deficiency  of  light  and  heat  very  much  prolongs  the  duration 
of  the  tadpole  state. 

Having  reached  their  perfect  condition,  the  frogs  cease  to  be  aquatic  ani- 
mals ;  but  most  of  them  continue  to  live  in  the  neighbourhood  of  water,  and 
dive  frequently  into  it. 

The  Batrachia  are  divisible  into  two  sections,  those  that  pre- 
serve their  tail  in  their  adult  state  (Urodeld),  and  those  that  lose 
that  member  altogether  (Anoura).  Those  that  retain  their  tail 
walk  badly;  owing  to  the  feebleness  of  their  limbs  they  can  only 
drag  their  bodies  along  the  ground,  and  usually  live  in  the  water 
— such  are  the  Newts.  Those,  on  the  contrary,  which  lose  their 
tail,  as  the  Frogs,  walk  or  even  leap  with  facility. 


TAILED  BATRACHIAXS.    URODELA.* 

In  this  division,  which  comprehends  the  Newts  and  the  Sala- 
manders, the  tail,  so  characteristic  of  the  tadpole  condition,  re- 
mains large,  long,  and  well  developed  through  life. 


FIG.  302.— SKELETON  OF  SALAMANDER. 

The  accompanying  figure  of  the  skeleton  of  one  of  these  ani- 
mals will  display  its  general  form  and  structure.  The  body  is 
slender,  lengthened,  and  lizard-like;  the  limbs  are  four  in  num- 
ber, and  furnished  with  small,  well-formed  toes  ;  the  vertebrae  are 
numerous  and  flexible,  the  ribs  mere  rudiments  and  very  short. 

The  Terrestrial  Salamander  (Salamandra}  is  a  harmless  little  reptile,  "from 
six  to  eight  inches  long,  thicker  and  fuller  than  a  lizard,  having  a  pale  white  belly,  and 
one  part  of  the  skin  exceeding  black,  the  other  yellow,  both  of  them  very  splendent  and. 
glistening,  with  a  black  line  going  down  the  back,  having  upon  it  many  little  spots,  like 
eggs."  This  "daughter  of  fire,  with  a  body  of  ice,"  was  formerly,  and  is  still,  in/some 
parts  believed  to  be  able  to  brave  the  violence  of  fire,  to  pass  through  it  unhurt,  and  even 
to  extinguish  it  in.  its  course,  with  how  much  truth  we  leave  our  readers  to  judge.  The 

*  oi'pa  oura,  tail ;  5/jXos,  delos,  manifest — i.e.,  having  a  conspicuous  tail. 


282 


REPTILES. 


young  of  the  salamander  are  produced  alive  and  fully  formed  ;  they  only  differ  from  the 
mother  by  the  possession  of  gills.  The  salamander  inhabits  Central  Europe,  and  occurs 
in  many  parts  of  France. 


FIG.  303. — SMOOTH  NEWT. 


The  Great  "Warty  Newt  ( Triton  cristatus]  is  one  of  the  most  common  and 

ther  small  anh 
large  ditches. 


j.nc    VJTlOctu     VV  ckiL  \jy     JLN  O  W  U    \f.rttvn  ir  MiuiitJ )    is  uuc  vi    nit 

the  largest  of  the  British  species.   It  lives  upon  aquatic  insects,  and  other  small  animals, 
and  also  upon  tadpoles ;  it  is  everywhere  to  be  found  in  ponds  and 


.  304. — METAMORPHOSES  OF  NK\YT. 


FROGS.  283 

The  Smooth.  Newt  (Lissotriton  punctatus}  likewise  abounds  in  our  ditches  and 
ponds,  in  which  it  may  be  seen  throughout  the  summer,  crawling  on  the  bottom, 
climbing  the  stems  of  plants,  swimming  with  a  wriggling  motion  through  the  water,  or 
coming  to  the  surface  to  breathe  air.  The  male  frequently  displays  the  under  surface 
of  his  body,  which  is  of  a  rich  orange,  studded  over,  as  is  the  olive-coloured  back, 
with  round  black  spots.  HLs  tail  in  spring-time  is  bordered  with  a  fin-like  expansion, 
and  is  often  tipped  with  bright  red  and  violet.  The  female  deposits  her  eggs  on  the 
leaves  of  aquatic  plants,  which  she  folds  up  in  a  curious  manner  and  glues  together  as 
a  protection  to  the  soft  and  shelless  eggs.  There  is  a  curious  superstition  current 
among  the  Irish  peasantry: — they  believe  that  this  newt  has  a  propensity  to  jump 
down  their  throats,  make  a  lodging  in  their  stomach,  and  to  multiply  there  in  a  frightful 
manner.  The  remedy  is  to  find  a  stream  running  directly  south,  and  to  lean  over  it 
with  the  mouth  open,  when  the  "efts"  will  come  out,  one  by  one,  and  plunge  into 
the  water ! 

TAILLESS  BATRACHIAXS.    AXOURA.* 

The  total  absence  of  the  least  vestige  of  a  tail,  and  their  short, 
squat,  bread  shape,  their  great  heads,  huge  mouths,  and  strong 
muscular  limbs,  are  sufficient  to  identify  Frogs  and  Toads  any- 


. 

- 


FIG.  305. --FROG. 


where,  especially  as  in  these  particulars  they  differ  so  widely  from 
any  other  member  of  their  class.  But  these  characters  apply  only 
to  the  adult  animals  ;  in  the  tadpole  condition,  an  unscientific 

*  z,  a,  :<  W.out;  oi'pd,  oura,  a  tail. 


284  REPTILES. 


observer  would  scarcely  detect  any  difference  between  a  frog  and 
a  newt. 

The  Frogs  (Rand)  are  too  well  known  to  need  description.  The  energetic 
movements  of  the  Common  Frog  (Rana  temporaria)  command  general  admi- 
ration. The  length  of  its  leaps  and  its  vigorous  action  in  swimming  depend 
on  the  great  development  of  the  hinder  limbs.  These  animals  feed  on  slugs 
and  insects,  which  they  seize  by  means  of  their  tongue,  the  arrangement  of 
which  is  very  curious.  When  at  rest  the  tongue  is  doubled  back  upon  itself, 


FIG.  306. — SKELETON  OF  FROG. 

so  that  the  tip  is  directed  towards  the  throat :  in  seizing  a  fly  or  beetle  it  is 
launched  forth  like  lightning,  and  as  quickly  retracted,  with  the  captive  prey 
adhering  to  its  extremity.  The  accompanying  figure  of  the  skeleton  of  the 
frog  may  be  compared  with  that  of  the  salamander  on  a  previous  page.  It 
will  be  seen,  with  many  points  in  common,  to  present  important  differences, 
particularly  the  small  number  of  joints  in  the  spine,  the  great  size  of  the 
pelvis,  or  bony  framework  at  the  hinder  part,  and  the  enormous  develop- 
ment of  the  hinder  limbs.  The  frog  has  no  trace  of  ribs,  which  in  the  newts 
do  exist,  though  very  small. 

Frogs  are  distinguishable  from  toads  by  a  row  of  teeth  all  round  the  upper 
jaw.  They  feed  only  on  living  prey.  In  winter  they  bury  themselves  in  the 
mud  or  in  holes,  and  do  not  eat. 

The  Tree-Frogs  (Hyla)  do  not  differ  much  from  ordinary  frogs,  except 
that  the  extremity  of  each  of  their  toes  is  enlarged  and  rounded  into  a  sort  of 
viscid  pellet  or  ball,  that  enables  them  to  adhere  to  objects  upon  which  they 
climb,  and  to  ascend  trees.  Endowed  with  great  suppleness  and  agility, 
tree-frogs  travel  very  lightly  over  the  most  flexible  branches.  During  the 
whole  summer  they  live  in  this  manner  on  trees,  pursuing  insects,  but  in 
winter  they  retire  to  the  bottom  of  the  water,  like  ordinary  frogs,  and  do  not 
return  again  to  the  humid  foliage  where  they  reside  until  after  they  have  de- 
posited their  eggs.  The  Common  Tree-Frog  (Rana  arboria)  is  of  an  apple- 
green  colour  above,  and  pale  beneath,  with  a  black  and  yellow  line  along  each 
side. 


TOADS. 


FIG.  307.— TREE-FROG. 

The  Toads  (Bufd)  have  a  thick-set  body  covered  with  warts,  from  which 
exudes  a  viscid  humour.    Their  hind  legs  are  not  so  much  elongated  as  those 


'/    <,  ,-''-^  • 

sw^i/A  — 


FIG.  308. — TOAD. 


of  frogs,  and  they  leap  badly;  in  general,  they  creep  rather  than  walk,  and 
when  Surprised,,  instead  of  taking  to  flight,  they  stop  suddenly  and  inflate 


286  REPTILES. 


their  body,  so  as  to  render  it  tense  and  elastic,  and  cause  the  skin  to  pour 
out  a  white  and  acrid  fluid.  Sometimes  they  endeavour  to  defend  themselves 
by  biting,  but  their  mouth  is  quite  destitute  of  teeth.  These  hideous  reptiles 
generally  conceal  themselves  in  shady  humid  places,  from  which  they  do  not 
go  out  except  at  night,  or  immediately  after  the  warm  and  abundant  rains  of 
summer.  Like  frogs,  they  feed  on  small  Mollusks,  worms,  and  living  in- 
sects, but  they  are  more  terrestrial  in  their  habits.  They  betake  themselves 
in  summer  to  pools  and  streams,  where  the  females  resort  to  deposit  their 
eggs.  In  countries  where  the  winter  is  cold,  they  pass  the  season  in  holes  in 
a  benumbed  state.  Their  respiration  then  becomes  extremely  limited,  and 
the  contact  of  a  very  small  quantity  of  air  with  the  skin  is  sufficient  to  main- 
tain their  existence.  When  placed  in  situations  where  evaporation  is  very 
inconsiderable,  they  can  live  in  this  way  for  a  long  time.  This  explains  how 
it  is  that  toads  enclosed  in  plaster,  or  shut  up  in  holes  excavated  in  stones, 
are  often  found  alive  after  many  months  of  confinement. 


FIG.  309. --PIPAS. 

The  Pipas  are  still  more  hideous  than  the  toads.  Their  body  is  more  flat- 
tened, the  head  triangular,  the  eyes  very  small,  their  hind  legs  short,  and  their 
anterior  toes  split  at  the  end  into  three  or  four  points.  The  tongue  is  entirely 
wanting.  The  species  best  known  inhabits  the  warm  and  humid  parts  of 
South  America,  and  is  remarkable  on  account  of  the  manner  in  which  its 
young  are  developed.  The  male  places  the  eggs  on  the  back  of  the  female, 
who  immediately  takes  to  the  water,  where  her  skin  swells  and  forms  cells, 
wherein  the  young  are  hatched,  and  remain  until  they  have  completed  their 
metamorphosis ;  then  the  mother  returns  to  land. 


SERPENTS. 


287 


ORDER  OPHIDIA.* 

The  first  Order  of  true  Reptiles  includes  the  Serpent  tribes, — 
animals  entirely  deprived  of  limbs,  and  yet  endowed  with  most 
formidable  attributes.  Unfurnished  with  any  apparent  means  of 
progression,  the  scale-clad  serpent  makes  its  way  in  either  ele- 


\ 


FIG.  310.— SKELETON  OF  SERPENT. 


ment  with  equal  facility.  Destitute  of  any  prehensible  members, 
it  seizes  and  devours  the  strongest  and  most  active  prey  ;  it  binds 
its  victims  in  a  living  rope,  or  with  a  single  scratch  inflicted  by  its 
envenomed  fangs  speedily  destroys  the  stoutest  assailant.  The 
Ophidian  Reptiles  are  arranged  in  five  families. 


FAMILY   L— WATER-SERPENTS. 

The  Water- Serpents  (Hydrophid<z\-\  as  their  name  imports, 
are  aquatic,  many  living  in  the  sea,  and  others  in  fresh  water. 
They  are  chiefly  natives  of  the  East  Indies  and  the  Indian  seas. 

*  £0t?,  ophis,  a  serpent ;  ddos,  eidos,  form  or  shape. 
f  v£up,  hudor,  icaier ;  c<pis,  ophis,  a  snake. 


288  REPIILES. 


The  Sea  or  Pelagic  Serpents  (Hydrophidia]  are  not  very  numerous  in 
species,  thirty-two  only  being  described,  but  they  are  extremely  abundant  as 
individuals,  and,  unlike  the  terrestrial  serpents,  are  always  met  with  in  num- 
bers together;  so  much  is  this  the  case  in  latitudes  where  they  are  common, 
that  their  appearance  serves  to  mariners  as  an  indication  that  they  are  ap- 
proaching land.  Their  body,  in  order  more  easily  to  cleave  the  waves,  becomes 
slender  towards  the  two  extremities,  and  their  tail  is  so  compressed  or  flat- 
tened as  to  be  at  once  an  oar  and  a  rudder.  These  snakes  cannot  erect  their 
fangs  so  much  as  the  Viperine  Serpents,  and  in  biting  their  prey  they  retain 
hold  of  it  with  their  jaws.  Their  size  varies  in  different  species,  from  two  feet 
and  a  half  to  five  feet. 

The  Fresh-water  Snakes  (Homalopsina)  *  are  nearly  equal  in  number 
to  the  marine,  about  thirty-six  species  being  described.  They  are  almost  all 
natives  of  intertropical  countries,  and  have  been  met  with  in  India,  China, 
Java,  Borneo,  the  West  Indies,  and  in  the  warm  parts  of  North  and  South 
America.  Many  of  them  attain  considerable  dimensions,  but  they  rarely 
exceed  four  feet  in  length,  though  they  are  as  thick  as  a  man's  arm.  The 
greater  proportion  of  them  are  truly  aquatic,  and  appear  particularly  formed 
for  peopling  the  immense  tracts  of  fresh  water  found  in  the  countries  they 
inhabit,  which  swarm  with  fishes,  that  constitute  their  usual  food.  They  have 
a  peculiar  appearance  and  most  disproportionate  shape, — a  short,  conical,  and 
robust  tail,  a  head  exceedingly  broad,  thick,  blunt,  and  short,  covered  with 
plates  of  irregular  and  inconstant  form,  small  nostrils,  and  little  eyes  directed 
upwards 

FAMILY   II. — VENOMOUS   SERPENTS. 

The  Second  Family  is  that  of  the  Venomous  Serpents  par 
excellence,  the  most  dreadful  of  all  living  creatures.  Fortunately 
there  is  something  more  than  usually  repulsive  in  their  aspect : 
their  thick  broad  head,  their  wide  jaws,  their  brilliant  eyes,  give 
them  an  expression  of  diabolical  malignity,  and  man  and  beast 
instinctively  recoil  from  their  presence.  Their  general  appearance 
and  physiognomy  are  so  peculiar,  and  the  impression  which  their 
look  creates  is  so  vivid,  that  they  may,  for  the  most  part,  be  imme- 
diately recognized  by  any  one  who  has  ever  attentively  examined 
a  single  species.  "  Their  jaws  are  generally  weak  ;  the  under  one 
is  provided  with  a  series  of  sharp-pointed  teeth,  but  the  upper 
jaw  is  destitute  of  any,  except  the  moveable  poison-fangs.  The 
head  is  extremely  broad,  flattened  on  the  crown,  and  heart-shaped 
or  triangular.  Instead  of  being  covered  by  plates,  as  in  the  harm- 
less races,  it  is  clothed  in  scales  similar  to  those  of  the  back.  Their 
eyes  are  small,  have  a  vertical  pupil,  are  deep  sunk  in  the  sides  of 
the  head,  and  overshadowed  by  the  projecting  plates  of  the  eye- 
brow. The  upper  lip  is  swollen,  and  hangs  down  in  order  to  con- 

*  6jUaX6j,  homalos,  smooth  ;  6'i/a?,  opsis,  appearance. 


SERPENTS. 


289 


ceal  the  long  fangs.  In  form  they  are  heavy  and  squat,  the  body 
being  pretty  thick  in  the  middle,  somewhat  compressed  ;  the  back 
slightly  keeled,  covered  with  rough  keeled  scales  ;  while  the  belly 
is  covered  with  broad  band-like  shields  or  scuta.  The  tail  is  short, 
conical,  and  thick,  but  never  blunt  at  the  tip. 


FIG.  311. — HEADS  OF  POISONOUS  SNAKES  OF  DIFFERENT  GENERA. 

"  Their  manners,  habits,  and  method  of  killing  their  prey  are 
very  characteristic.  Their  dull,  heavy  disposition,  their  slow  mode 
of  progression,  the  extreme  sluggishness  of  all  their  movements, 
would  naturally  render  their  pursuit  of  active  animals  unavailing ; 
but,  gifted  with  the  utmost  patience,  they  calmly  wait  till  chance 
brings  within  their  reach  the  creatures  destined  for  their  food. 
When  these  approach,  or  when  disturbed  by  an  enemy,  they  dis- 
play their  formidable  powers.  They  raise  their  heads  erect,  open 
their  mouth  so  wide  that  their  jaws  form  an  obtuse  angle,  they 
project  their  fangs,  their  body  uncoils  like  a  loosened  spring,  and 
the  serpent,  aiding  the  sudden  assault  by  resting  upon  its  tail, 
darts  at  a  single  bound  upon  its  victim  to  inflict  the  fatal  wound," 

"And  hurls  at  once  its  venom  and  its  length." 

The  art  of  the  chemist  has  not  succeeded  in  extracting  from 
the  most  deadly  substances  a  poison  so  potent  as  that  with  which 
they  are  gifted.  Its  effect  is  almost  instantaneous  :  from  thirty 
seconds  to  two  minutes  is  the  brief  time  required  for  its  operation, 
so  fearful — so  merciful — is  its  mortal  virulence  when  employed 
against  the  small  animals  that  constitute  the  ordinary  food  of  these 
reptiles.  It  is  in  tropical  climates  that  the  poisonous  serpents 

19 


2QO 


REPTILES. 


thrive.  They  swarm  in  Surinam,  in  French  Guiana,  in  Peru,  in 
Brazil ;  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Lower  Orinoco  they  are 
so  abundant  that  when  the  natives  set  fire  to  the  brushwood  and 
grass  with  which  the  country  is  covered,  whole  armies  of  formid- 
able species  sally  forth  in  crowded  ranks  to  the  number  of  thou- 
sands at  a  time,  putting  all  to  flight  before  them.  In  cold  coun- 
tries only  a  few  are  to  be  found  in  a  large  extent  of  territory  :  they 
grow  scarce  as  we  go  north,  and  totally  disappear  in  the  polar 
regions. 

In  the  Venomous  Serpents  the  teeth  of  the  upper  jaw  are  generally 
deficient  or  very  small,  with  the  exception  of  two  of  large  size,  which  consti- 
tute, perhaps,  the  most  terrible  weapons  met  with  in  the  animal  creation. 
These  poison-teeth,  placed  one  on  each  side,  are  attached  to  moveable  bones 


FIG.  312. — POISON-FANGS. 


FIG.  313. — POISON-GLAND. 


(Fig.  312).  When  not  in  use  they  are  laid  flat  upon  the  roof  of  the  mouth, 
where  they  are  covered  by  a  fold  of  the  gums ;  but  when  the  animal  is  irritated 
or  about  to  strike  its  prey,  they  are  plucked  up  from  their  concealment,  and 
stand  out  like  two  lancets.  Each  fang  is  traversed  by  a  canal,  not,  as  it  is 
generally  described,  excavated  in  the  substance  of  the  tooth,  but  formed  by 
bending,  as  it  were,  the  tooth  upon  itself,  so  as  to  enclose  a  narrow  channel, 
through  which  the  poison  flows.  The  glands  in  which  the  poison  is  elaborated 
(Fig.  313)  occupy  a  considerable  space  on  each  side  of  the  head.  The  sub- 
stance of  these  organs  is  spongy,  and  composed  of  cells  that  communicate 
with  the  poison-duct,  whereby  the  venom  is  conveyed  to  the  base  of  the  fang, 
and  instilled  into  the  wound  inflicted  by  these  fatal  instruments. 

The  Rattlesnakes  (Crotalus)*  owe  their  name  to  a  singular  apparatus 
which  terminates  the  tail,  and  which  distinguishes  them  from  all  other  serpent.s. 
It  consists  of  a  series  of  horny  scales,  loosely  fitting  into  each  other  like  a  nest 
of  boxes,  which  vibrate  and  sound  when  the  animal  moves.  Even  while  they 
are  at  rest  this  instrument  is  shaken  with  extreme  rapidity,  and  thus  produces 
.a  noise  sufficiently  loud  to  be  heard  at  a  distance  of  many  yards. 

Rattlesnakes  attain  a  length  of  five  or  six  feet,  and  even  more.     They  in- 

*  KporaXov,  crotalon,  a  rattle  or  castaiict. 


RATTLESNAKES. 


291 


\n          si  i 

FIG.  314. — RATTLESNAKE. 

habit  America,  and  are  dreaded  on  account  of  the  virulence  of  their  poison. 
n  general  they  do  not  bite,  except  when  provoked,  and  they  rarely  attack 


FIG.  ^15  — COBRA  NAJA. 


10—2 


292 


REPTILES. 


animals  too  large  for  them  to  swallow.  Notwithstanding  that  their  food  con- 
sists of  birds,  squirrels,  &c.,  they  do  not  climb  trees.  These  serpents  usually 
keep  themselves  coiled  spirally  near  a  watering-place  frequented  by  small 
Mammals.  There  they  patiently  wait  until  some  victim  presents  itself,  and 
when  within  reach  they  spring  upon  it  with  the  rapidity  of  lightning.  There 
are  many  species  of  these  terrible  animals.  The  negroes  eat  their  flesh. 

The  FeF-de-lailce  ( Craspcdocepnalns*  lanceolatus]  is  one  of  the  most  deadly  serpents 
of  the  West  Indies,  where  it  principally  haunts  the  plantations  of  sugar-cane.  Conceal- 
ing themselves  under  the  long  leaves  wherewith  the  earth  is  strewn,  they  carry  on  a 
constant  warfare  against  lizards,  small  birds,  and  rats.  The  latter  animal  forms  the 
chief  article  of  their  food.  When  at  rest  this  snake  coils  itself  up  in  four  circles  of  equal 
diameter  one  above  another,  under  the  last  of  which  is  placed  the  tail ;  the  head,  termi- 
nating the  upper  extremity  of  the  coil,  is  a  little  reared  and  drawn  backward.  From 
this  position  it  throws  itself  with  the  rapidity  of  an  arrow  upon  its  victim. 

The  Horned  Vipers  (Cerastes),  found  in  the  burning  sands  of  Africa ;  the 
Hooded  Snakes  (Najd],  common  in  India  ;  the  Puff-Adder  (Clotho)  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  hosts  of  others  might  be  mentioned,  whose  names 
are  familiarized  to  us  by  the  accounts  of  travellers. 


FIG.  316.— Yii-ER. 


The  Viper  ( Vipzrus  bents]  inhabits  the  mountainous,  stony,  and  woody  districts  of 
our  own  island.  It  feeds  on  mice,  moles,  young  birds,  reptiles,  and  even  insects  and 
worms.  During  the  cold  season  these  reptiles  remain  benumbed  in  holes,  where  several 
are  often  found  entwined  together.  They  are  most  frequently  seen  on  the  first  fine 
days  of  spring,  warming  themselves  in  the  sunshine  ;  but  when  the  weather  becomes 
very  hot,  they  are  rarely  to  be  met  with.  The  bite  of  the  viper  is  very  dangerous. 


,  craspedon,  an  edge  or  border  ; 


cephale,  tJie  liead. 


BOA    CONSTRICTOR.  293 


FAMILY  III.— BOAS. 

The  family  of  Boas  (Boidce)  contains  a  considerable  number 
of  species,  upwards  of  forty  being  described  in  the  catalogue  of 
the  British  Museum.  They  are,  generally  speaking,  the  largest  of 
all  the  Serpent  tribe,  and  are  characterized  by  several  distinctive 
marks.  The  greater  number  of  them  have  a  prehensile  tail,  which, 
though  short,  is  excellently  fitted  for  grasping  the  branches  of 
trees.  They  possess  rudimentary  hind  extremities,  which  are  de- 
veloped under  the  skin.  These  consist  of  several  small  bones, 


FIG.  317. — VENT  A:;D  HOOK  CF  BOA. 

terminated  by  a  horny  spur — not  unlike  the  spur  of  a  fowl  in 
miniature  :  these  little  claws  project  externally  a  little  in  front  of 
the  vent  (Fig.  317).  Their  body  is  well  adapted  for  twisting  and 
twining  round  other  objects,  and  the  scales  that  cover  it  are  small 
and  numerous. 

The  Boa  Constrictor  has  the  upper  jaws  and  palate-bones  lined  with  teeth,  all 
of  which  are  very  sharp  and  pointed  backwards.  Each  side  of  the  lower  jaw  is  likewise 
armed  with  teeth,  all  directed  towards  the  throat.  It  must  be  evident,  from  a  mere  in- 
spection of  these  teeth,  that  they  can  be  of  little  use  in  holding,  much  less  in  destroy- 
ing, such  strong  and  large  animals  as  the  Boa  devours,  and  upon  a  little  reflection  we 
shall  find  that  they  are  intended  for  a  very  different  purpose.  These  serpents  are  said 
to  watch  in  the  forests,  and  especially  near  the  drinking-places  of  rivers — there,  hanging 
from  a  tree,  until  some  quadruped  passes  within  range.  On  its  approach,  the  Boa  darts 
upon  its  prey,  and,  more  swiftly  than  the  eye  can  follow,  encircles  it  in  voluminous 
folds.  The  Boa  thus  kills  its  victims  by  coiling  its  lengthy  body  round  their  chest,  ami 
then,  by  strong  muscular  contraction,  compressing  the  ribs  so  firmly  that  respiration 
is  prevented,  and  the  animal  so  seized  speedily  perishes  from  suffocation.  But  having 
succeeded  in  extinguishing  life,  the  most  difficult  task  still  remains  to  be  accomplished. 
How  is  the  serpent,  utterly  destitute  as  it  is  of  all  external  limbs,  to  force  down  its 
throat  an  animal  many  times  thicker  than  its  own  body  ?  The  mode  adopted  is  as 
follows  :  Having  relaxed  the  dreadful  embrace,  it  once  more  winds  itself  round  the 
slain  animal,  and  commences  with  the  head,  which,  by  main  force,  it  thrusts  into  its 
mouth— the  jaws  becoming  widely  separated,  so  that  the  throat  is  stretched  enormously 
as  the  food  is  forced  into  it.  Deglutition  is  here  a  very  lengthy  and  laborious  process, 
and  was  there  not  some  special  contrivance  to  guard  against  such  an  accident,  no  sooner 
were  the  efforts  of  the  snake  relaxed  in  the  slightest  degree,  than  the  muscles  of  the 


294 


REPTILES. 


FIG.  318. — BOA  CONSTRICTOR  WATCH  INC;  FOR  PREY. 

throat  and  jaws,  being  in  an  extreme  state  of  tension,  would  force  out  of  the  mouth 
what  had  alr.eady  been  partially  swallowed.  To  provide  against  this,  the  teeth  are,  by 
their  position,  converted  into  a  sort  of  valve.  Pointing  backwards  as  they  do,  they 
permit  the  bulky  food  to  pass  down  towards  the  throat,  but  at  the  same  time  their  sharp 
points  efficiently  prevent  it  from  being  pushed  back  again  in  the  opposite  direction : 

"facilis  descensus  Averni 

Sed  revocare  gradum,  superas  que  evadere  ad  auras. 
Hoc  opus  hie  labor  est." 

The  largest  of  all  the  Boa  family,  and  perhaps  the  largest  of  the  Serpent 
race,  is 

The  Anaconda  (Euncdcs  mitrinus},  found  only  on  the  American  cont;nent.  It 
is  to  this  species  that  we  must  refer  the  greater  number  of  the  highly-exaggerated  tales 


HARMLESS  SNAKES. 


295 


of  travellers  relative  to  the  enormous  size,  ferocious  habits,  and  extraordinary  voracity 
of  the  monstrous  serpents  of  the  New  World.  Still,  it  is  quite  formidable  enough  : 
one  of  its  provincial  names,  El  Traga  Venado,  or  the  "  Deer-swallower,"  sufficiently 
indicates  the  idea  entertained  by  the  Indians  relative  to  the  nature  of  its  food. 


FIG.  319. — .SKULL  OF  PYTHON*. 

FAMILY   IV. — HARMLE>S   SNAKES. 

The  Harmless  Snakes  (Cohtbridce)  form  a  very  extensive 
family,  recognizable  by  having  the  head  small  and  covered  with 
broad  plates,  and  the  tail  conical  and  tapering ;  they  are  quite 
destitute  of  poison  teeth.  Of  these  not  fewer  than  three  hundred 
ind  forty  different  species  have  been  described. 


-  —       .      f 

FIG.  320. — COMMON  RINGED  SNAKE. 

The  Common  Ringed  Snake  ( Coluber  natrix}  affords  a  good  example  of  the 
group.     It  has  broad  flat  plates  on  the  head,  and  the  belly  is  shod,  as  it  were,  with  a 


296  REPTILES. 


single  series  of  wide  parallel  horny  shields,  placed  transversely  ;  beneath  the  tail,  these 
are  disposed  in  a  double  series  (Fig.  322). 


FIG.  321. — HEAD  OF  RINGED  S.VAKE.  FIG.  322. — BELLY  AND  TAIL  SHIELDS. 

FAMILY   V. — DOUBLE   WALKERS. 

The  Fifth  Family  of  Serpents  (Amphisbceitidce)  contains 
The  Double  Walkers  (Amphisb/zna),*  so  called  because  it  is  difficult 
to  make  either  head  or  tail  of  them,  seeing  that  they  progress  equally  well  with 
either  end  foremost.  They  have  much  resemblance  to  the  slow-worms  deli- 
neated in  the  next  figure,  feed  chiefly  upon  ants  and  other  insects,  and  are 
perfectly  harmless.  The  species  are  few,  and  abound  in  the  tropical  parts  of 
both  hemispheres. 

ORDER  SAURiA.f 

The  Saurian  Reptiles,  or  Lizards,  might  almost  be  described  as 
serpents  supported  upon  legs ;  indeed,  in  some  of  the  genera  the 
resemblance  to  serpents  is  so  great  that  they  might  easily  be  mis- 
taken for  those  animals.  In  general,  however,  the  legs  are  suffi- 
ciently developed  to  be  used  as  the  principal  instruments  of  loco- 
motion ;  they  are  then  four  in  number,  and  the  toes  are  armed 
with  claws.  The  skin  of  lizards  is  covered  either  with  scales  or 
with  granulations  ;  but  in  other  respects  they  are  most  variously 
constructed,  as  will  be  seen  by  inspecting  the  tabular  view  of 
their  classification  in  the  following  page.  (See  p.  297.) 

The  habits  of  these  various  families  are  very  diverse.  Some, 
as  the  crocodiles,  inhabit  lakes  and  rivers.  Others,  as  the  iguanas, 
live  among  the  foliage  of  trees.  Some,  as  the  dragons,  perform 
a  sort  of  flight  like  that  of  the  flying  squirrels.  The  lizards  delight 
to  bask  in  the  genial  rays  of  the  sun  on  exposed  sandy  banks ; 
others  conceal  themselves  in  humid  forests,  beneath  stones  and 
rotten  logs.  Some  crawl  with  slow  and  languid  efforts,  others  run 
with  a  celerity  that  the  eye  can  scarcely  follow.  Though  found 
in  almost  all  countries,  the  fervent  sun  of  the  tropics  seems  most 
favourable  to  their  existence,  and  it  is  more  especially  in  such 
regions  as  have  a  moist  as  well  as  a  hot  atmosphere  that  they 
abound. 

*  d.u0i's,  amphis,  both  ways  ;  /Sdu/w,  baino,  to  go.  f  cravpos,  sauros,.  a  lizard. 


SLOW-WORM.  297 


The  ribs  of  the  Saurians  are  moveable,  and  can  be  raised  or 
depressed  for  the  purpose  of  respiration.  Their  eggs  have  an 
envelope  more  or  less  hard,  and  the  young  issue  forth  in  the  form 
that  they  always  retain. 

Their  mouth  is  invariably  furnished  with  teeth,  and  with  few 
exceptions  their  toes  have  claws. 


298  REPTILES. 


The  transition  from  serpents  to  lizards  is  happily  exemplified 
by  a  pretty  little  animal,  common  enough  in  this  country,  called 

The  Slow- Worm  (Anguis  fragilis),  the  appearance  of  which  is  thoroughly 
snake-like ;  its  body  is  very  long  and  slender,  and  it  has  not  the  slightest  appearance 
of  limbs.  Yet  it  is  very  closely  allied  to  the  lizards,  as  its  internal  structure  clearly 
shows.  The  bones  of  the  pelvis,  or  arch  to  which  the  hinder  limbs  are  attached,  are 
found  to  exist  in  a  rudimentary  state,  although  no  outward  indication  of  limbs  appears. 
If  this  little  creature  is  laid  hold  of  or  alarmed,  it  contracts  its  body  so  forcibly  as  to 


FIG.  323.— Stcm-WoRM. 

become  perfectly  stiff,  and  then  it  will  break  in  two  with  the  slightest  blow  or  attempt 
to  bend  it.  We  therefore  at  once  perceive  the  propriety  of  one  of  its  Latin  appellation^, 
that  of  fragilis  (brittle).  The  slow- worm  is  not  only  perfectly  harmless,  but  extremely 
useful,  its  principal  food  consisting  of  slugs,  the  greatest  enemies  of  the  agriculturist. 

In  the  GrlaSS  Snake  of  North  America  the  condition  of  the  limbs  is  equally 
rudimentary.  Other  species  display,  as  it  were,  links  in  a  curious  chain  of  gradations  : 
some  have  two  minute  feet  in  front  and  none  behind ;  others,  as  the  Sheltopusik 
(Pseudopus],  have  only  sproutings  of  the  hinder  pair.  Some  have  both  pairs,  but  small 
and  weak,  set  very  far  apart  on  the  lengthened  body,  and  destitute  of  toes.  In  others 
they  become  gradually  more  developed,  until  we  find  them  at  length  completely  formed, 
as  in 

The  True  Lizards  (Lacerta),  remarkable  for  the  activity  of  their  move- 
ments. Of  these  we  have  two  native  species. 

The  Common  or  Viviparous  Lizard  (Zooloca),  so  called  because  instead  of 
depositing  her  eggs  in  the  sand  to  be  matured  by  the  warmth  of  the  sun,  as  other 
lizards,  the  female  of  this  species  retains  them  until  the  young  are  hatched,  and  thus 
they  are  produced  alive. 

The  Sand  Lizards  (Lacerta  agilis),  are  remarkable  for  the  activity  of  their  move- 
ments. Every  one  must  have  remarked  with  what  rapidity  they  nm  from  one  place  to 
another,  and  how  they  caw  cling  to  walls  and  rocks  by  means  of  their  long  and  crooked 
claws.  The  food  of  these  lizards  consists  chiefly  of  insects.  They  are  timid,  harmless 


LIZARDS. 


299 


"7^ 

Fu;.  324.— COMMON  LIZAKD, 


Fie.  325.  -DRACO  VOLANS. 

animals,  darting  away  en  the  slightest  alarm,  and  concealing  themselves  in  sornc  con- 
venient retreat. 


300  REPTILES. 


The  Plying1  Lizards  (Draco  volant)  have  their  hinder  pairs  of  ribs  prolonged  to 
such  an  extent  that  they  support  a  broad  expansion  of  the  skin,  so  spread  out  from 
either  side  as  to  perform  the  office  of  a  parachute,  thus  enabling  these  little  creatures  to 
spring  from  tree  to  tree  with  wonderful  activity. 

The  Scinks  (Scincida)  have  the  legs  small,  feeble,  and  set  far  apart ;  the 
body  is  covered  with  overlapping  scales.  The  tongue  is  fleshy,  notched,  and 
scaly.  They  are  harmless,  commonly  feeding  on  insects ;  but 

The  Gallywasp  of  the  West  Indies  (Celestns  occiduus)  feeds  on  fruits. 


FIG.  326. — GALLYWASP. 

The  Monitors  ( Varanidic)  have  a  protrusile,  sheathed,  and  forked  tongue,  and 
are  covered  with  tubercle-like  scales,  arranged  in  rings  or  circular  bands  round  the  body 
and  tail.  Their  name  is  derived  from  the  Latin  word  monco,  to  warn,  these  animals 
being  believed  to  give  warning  of  the  approach  of  the  crocodile.  They  are  found  only 
in  the  warmer  parts  of  Africa  and  Asia.  They  live  near  the  banks  of  rivers,  and  some 
are  altogether  aquatic.  They  often  devour  the  eggs  of  crocodiles  and  aquatic  birds ; 
even  small  fishes,  lizards,  and  tortoises  fall  victims  to  their  voracity. 

The  Guanas  (Iguana-)  belong  to  the  New  World.  Their  teeth  are  of  remarkable 
structure  and  crenated  round  the  edge.  Most  of  them  live  on  trees,  which  they  climb 
by  means  of  their  long  hooked  claws,  in  search  of  fruits  and  leaves,  that  form  their 
principal  sustenance.  The  flesh  of  the  Common  Guana  is  in  good  estimation  as  an 
article  of  food. 

The  Geckos  (Gecko).  All  the  preceding  families  are  active  by  day,  but 
the  geckos  are  nocturnal  in  their  habits.  They  are  rather  clumsy  and  stoutly 
built,  of  dull  lurid  colours,  with  great  eyes,  the  pupils  of  which  contract  to  a 
line,  like  those  of  a  cat.  The  structure  of  their  toes  is  very  remarkable :  their 
under  surface  is  expanded  into  broad  flaps,  furnished  with  parallel  plates  that 
overlap  each  other  (Fig,  327).  By  means  of  these  they  are  enabled  to  cling 
to  perpendicular  surfaces,  or  even  to  walk  suspended  from  the  ceiling  like  the 


CHAMELEON. 


301 


house-fly.     They  utter  unmusical  cries  by  night,  which  have  been  thought  to 
resemble  the  word  "  geeko,"  whence  their  name. 


«4\(  \fP& 


Fie.  327.— FEET  OF  GECKOS. 

The  Chameleons  (Chamclcd]  are  the  most  remarkable  of  reptiles.     Their 
toes,  five  in  number,  are  divided  into  two  groups  that  oppose  each  other,  as  in 


FIG.  328. — CHAMELEON. 

the  foot  of  a  parrot,  a  provision  which  enables  them  to  grasp  firmly  the  boughs 
of  the  trees  upon  which  they  live.  They  are  dull,  slow  animals,  languid  and 
heavy  in  their  movements,  and  often  remaining  in  the  same  position  for  hours 
together,  basking  in  the  sun.  The  only  part  that  moves  with  quickness  is  the 


302 


REPTILES. 


tongue.  The  food  of  the  chameleon  consists  of  insects,  and  it  will  remain 
motionless,  stationed  upon  a  branch,  until  the  unconscious  prey  comes  within 
reach,  when  in  a  moment  the  tongue  is  darted  forth,  and  the  insect  is  caught 
and  swallowed.  Their  power  of  changing  colour  is  wonderful,  accurately 
imitating  the  tints  of  the  leaves  and  branches  around  them;  so  that  their 
presence  is  not  discoverable  except  upon  close  inspection. 

The  Crocodiles  (Crocodifas),  sometimes  classed  as  a  distinct  Order  under 
the  name  of  Loricata,  are  the  giants  of  the  reptile  race,  some  of  them  attain- 
ing the  length  of  twenty-five  feet ;  and  as  they  are  strong,  ferocious,  and  cun- 
ning, they  may  rank  among  the  most  formidable  animals.  In  their  general 
form  they  agree  with  the  lizards,  but  they  are  distinguished  by  several  im- 
portant characters. 


FIG.  330. — CROCODILE. 

Of  these,  the  most  tangible  and  obvious  is  that  the  whole  back  part  of  the 
neck,  body,  and  tail  is  clad  with  distinct  series  of  bony  plates,  embedded, 
as  it  were,  in  the  substance  of  the  skin,  and  covered  externally  with  a  thick 
cuticle.  These  dermal  bones  are  exceedingly  strong,  and  they  altogether  form 
a  panoply  of  defence  capable  of  resisting  the  attacks  of  the  most  powerful 
enemies.  The  bones  of  the  head  in  the  crocodile  are  more  consolidated  than 
those  of  most  reptiles ;  the  lower  jaw  is  prolonged  behind  the  base  of  the  skull, 
and  this  structure  causes  the  upper  jaw  to  seem  moveable.  There  is  in  each 
jaw  a  single  row  of  teeth,  which  are  conical  in  form.  A  cavity  at  the  root  of 
each  tooth  serves  as  a  case  or  sheath  for  the  germ  of  the  tooth  destined  to 
replace  it;  and  each  being  thus  gradually  pushed  out  by  a  successor  ready  to 
supply  its  place,  the  mouth  of  the  crocodiles  presents  at  all  ages  its  formidable 
array  of  pointed  teeth  in  undiminished  number.  The  tongue  is  flat,  and  free 


TURTLES. 


303 


only  at  the  very  edge,  so  that  these  unwieldy  animals  have  often  been  described 
as  destitute  of  a  tongue.  The  face  has  no  lips,  hence  the  long  and  close  array 
of  grinning  teeth  is  always  visible,  imparting  a  very  repulsive  aspect  to  the 
countenance.  The  strong  bony  scales  forming  their  coat  of  mail  are  frequently 
ridged,  and  those  of  the  tail  are  elevated  into  a  deeply  notched  or  saw-like 
crest,  which  at  the  basal  part  is  double. 


ORDER  CHELONIA* 

The  Chelonian  Reptiles  are  distinguishable  at  the  first  glance 
by  the  double  buckler  wherein  their  body  is  enclosed,  leaving 
only  the  head,  neck,  tail,  and  four  feet  moveable. 

The  upper  buckler,  named  the  carapax,  or  back-plate,  is  formed 
by  the  ribs,  eight  pairs  in  number,  which  are  widened,  united  to- 
gether, and  solidly  fixed  to  the  back-bone.  The  lower  buckler, 
termed  plastron,  or 
breast-plate,  is  form- 
ed of  pieces  that  re- 
present the  sternum, 
nine  in  number.  A 
framework  usually 
composed  of  bony 
pieces  surrounds  the 
carapax,  and  con- 
nects all  the  ribs  to- 
gether. The  verte- 
brae of  the  neck  and 
tail  only  are  move- 
able,  and  the  bones 
of  the  shoulder  and 
pelvis  are  literally 
situated  inside  the 
body.  The  outer  surfaces  of  the  carapax  and  plastron  are  covered 
with  a  series  of  horny  or  sometimes  leathery  plates,  of  regular 
angular  forms,  closely  fitted  to  each  other.  The  jaws  are  clothed 
in  horn,  like  the  beak  of  a  bird,  which  they  much  resemble  both 
in  appearance  and  action.  The  eggs  of  the  Chelonians  are  co- 
vered, like  those  of  birds,  with  a  hard,  brittle,  white  shell,  and  are 
deposited  by  the  female  in  the  warm  sand,  where  they  are  hidden 
from  observation  and  left  to  be  hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  sun. 

Tortoises  possess  amazing  tenacity  of  life :    some  have  been 


FIG.  331.— SKELETON  OF  TCRTLE. 


chelone, 


3°4 


REPTILES. 


known  to  move  for  many  weeks  after  decapitation.  Very  little 
nourishment  is  necessary  for  them,  and  they  can  pass  entire 
months  without  eating. 

The  Chelonian  Reptiles  may  all  be  arranged  in  four  principal 
families,  according  to  the  following  table : 


OMELONIANS, 

Having  the  feet 

/Large,  truncate  at  the  end 
ing  only,  and  having  tl 
common  mass  as  far  as 

Flattened  and  provided 
with   distinct   toes, 
simply    united    by    a 
palmate      membrane, 
which  is 

and  formed  for  walk-  ^ 
le  toes  united  into  a  >  Land 
the  nails  ) 

Incomplete,  carapax") 
furnished     with  >  Pond 
scales  j 

Tortoises. 

Tortoises, 

Tortoises, 
ortoises    c 

with  a  sott  skin.     .  )  - 

Flattened,   in  the  form  of   large   swimming")  «       rri 
paddles,  and  not  having  the  toes  externally  >         ~  r 
\  distinct  .                                                              .  ) 

FIG.  332. — HAWKSBILL  TURTLE. 

The  Turtles  (Chelonidce)  are  very  remarkable  on  account  of  the  structure 
of  their  limbs.  The  feet,  though  the  toes  are  composed  of  distinct  pieces  and 
armed  with  sharp  claws,  are  changed  into  flat  depressed  fins,  only  fitted  for 
swimming,  an  act  which  they  perform  with  great  vigour  and  celerity.  The 


fore  legs  are  much  longer  and  larger  than  the  hinder  ones,  and  are  not  retrac- 
tile within  the  shell ;  their  carapax  is  generally  I 


heart-shaped  and  exceedingly 


TURTLE. 


305 


flattened,  a  form  well  adapted  to  admit  of  rapid  movement  through  the 
water. 

Turtles  feed  principally  upon  marine  plants,  and  only  leave  the  sea  to  lay 
their  eggs.  They  swim  with  great  facility,  and  are  sometimes  met  with  seve- 
ral hundred  miles  from  land,  floating  on  the  surface  of  the  ocean.  They 
appear  to  be  able  to  sleep  in  this  way,  and  they  also  dive  very  well.  At  the 
laying  season  they  leave  their  habitual  haunts  and  resort  to  the  shores  of  some 
desert  island,  to  deposit  their  eggs  in  holes  which  they  dig  in  the  sand. 
During  the  night  they  drag  themselves  on  to  the  beach  beyond  the  line  of 
high  tide,  and  with  their  fore  fins  excavate  a  cavity  about  two  feet  deep, 
wherein  they  deposit  their  eggs  in  regular  ranges,  and  cover  them  with  sand 


FIG.  333.— LEATHER-BACKED  TURTLE. 

so  carefully  as  scarcely  to  leave  the  smallest  trace  of  their  labour.  This 
operation  accomplished,  they  return  to  the  sea.  The  number  of  their  eggs  is 
very  considerable,  sometimes  as  many  as  two  hundred,  and  the  laying  is  re- 
peated two  or  three  times  a  year.  In  about  fifteen  or  twenty  days  the  eggs 
are  hatched,  and  the  young,  as  yet  quite  soft  and  shelless,  immediately  make 
for  the  water ;  but,  before  reaching  it,  they  often  become  the  prey  of  carni- 
vorous birds,  that  seem  to  await  the  moment  of  their  birth  to  feast  upon  them. 
They  have  also  to  dread  voracious  fishes  and  crocodiles,  so  that  comparatively 
few  escape  from  their  numerous  enemies. 

The  tortoise-shell,  so  much  valued  on  account  of  its  high  polish,  semi- 
transparency,  and  richly-clouded  colours,  is  obtained  from  the  plates  covering 
the  frack  of  the  Hawksbill  Turtle  (Chdone  imbricate),  of  \vhich  a  figure  is 
appended  (Fig.  332).  The  flesh  of  this  species  is  not  valued  ;  but  there  is 
another  (Chelone  mydas),  belonging  to  the  same  family,  so  highly  esteemed 
for  the  delicacy  of  its  flavour,  that  great  numbers  are  annually  imported  from 

20 


3°6 


REPTILES. 


the  tropics  for  the  sake  of  the  flesh  alone.  They  are  packed  one  upon  an- 
other in  casks  of  sea-water,  which  is  changed  daily.  Both  of  these  species 
have  been  taken  on  the  Bristol  coast ;  but  such  an  occurrence  can  only  be 
considered  rare  and  accidental. 

The  Leather-backed  Turtle  (Sphargis)  (Fig.  333),  instead  of  horny  plates, 
is  covered  with  a  leathery  skin,  marked  by  several  ridges  running  lengthways  down 
the  back.  These  animals  are  amongst  the  bulkiest  of  the  race,  and  have  been  known 
to  measure  nine  or  ten  feet.  They  have  a  remarkable  cry,  and  when  caught  in  the  net 
utter  a  loud  roaring  sound,  whence  they  derive  their  name  Sphargis,  from  the  Greek 
<r(f>apayifa  (spharagizo),  which  means  "to  move  with  a  noise." 

In  the  great  rivers  and  lakes  of  both  hemispheres  there  are 
some  large  and  ferocious  creatures,  known  as 

The  Soft  Tortoises  (Trionyx).  These  have  no  horny  shell,  but  are 
covered  by  a  soft  skin  occupying  the  centre  of  the  back,  and  surrounded  by 
a  broad  margin  of  firmer  texture  (Fig.  334).  Their  feet  are  webbed,  but  three 
toes  of  each  are  furnished  with  powerful  claws,  whence  their  name  Trionyoc 

(three-clawed).  The  beak 
is  horny,  and  partly  conceal- 
ed by  fleshy  lips,  and  their 
muzzle  is  extended  into  a 
short  proboscis.  These  ani- 
mals are  eminently  carni- 
vorous, and  pursue  fishes 
and  young  crocodiles,  which 
they  catch  in  the  water.  Not- 
withstanding the  nature  of 
their  food,  their  flesh  is  es- 
teemed for  the  table,  and 
hence  they  are  caught  with 
a  hook  and  line.  In  seizing 
their  food  or  defending 
themselves,  they  dart  out 
their  long  neck  with  the 

sudden  rapidity  of  an  arrow.  The  grasp  of  their  powerful  and  trenchant  beak 
is  sharp  and  deadly,  nor  is  it  relaxed  until  the  part  seized  is  cut  out.  Indeed, 
such  is  their  boldness  and  ferocity,  that  they  are  dreaded  even  by  those  who 
fish  for  them. 

The  Marsh  Tortoises  (Emys)  form  a  very  numerous  family,  including 
seventy-four  out  of  the  one  hundred  and  twenty  species  known  to  belong  to 
the  Order.  More  than  half  of  them  are  American.  They  resemble  the  com- 
mon land  tortoises  in  their  general  appearance,  but  are  flatter,  and  their  toes 
are  connected  by  a  web.  They  inhabit  fresh  waters,  in  which  they  swim  with 
facility,  and  are  often  found  in  stagnant  ponds  and  morasses.  They  feed  on 
small  aquatic  animals.  Many  species  are  esteemed  for  the  excellence  of  their 
flesh.  The  common  European  Terrapin  (Terrapene  Europosa)  is  taken  in 
great  numbers,  fattened  in  cellars,  and  sold  in  the  markets  of  Germany. 

The  Land  Tortoises  (Testudd]  (Fig.  336)  are  recognized  by  having  their 
upper  shell  very  high  and  convex ;  their  limbs  are  short  and  pillar-like,  ap- 
pearing as  if  cut  off ;  they  are  terminated,  however,  by  horny  hoof-like  claws. 
The  land  tortoises  live  exclusively  on  vegetables,  such  as  leaves  and  fruits, 
do  not  seek  the  water,  are  heavy  and  slow  in  their  movements,  and  burrow  in 


FIG.  334. — SOFT  TORTOISE. 


TORTOISES. 


307 


•  ;• 

fL 

FIG.  335. — EUROPEAN  MARSH  TORTOISE. 


the  earth  in  cold  weather.  They  are  remarkable  for  their  extreme  longevity. 
In  the  tropics  there  are  species  of  great  size  (as  the  Galapagos  Tortoise,  re- 
presented in  our  figure) ;  some,  indeed,  are  so  heavy,  that  it  requires  six  or 
eight  men  to  lift  them  from  the  ground ;  one  of  these  will  afford  two  hundred 
pounds  of  excellent  meat. 


FIG.  336.-  GALAPAGOS  TORTOIS£ 


20 — 2 


308  BIRDS. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

THIRD  CLASS  OF  VERTEBRATE  ANIMALS. 
BIRDS. 

NO  department  of  Nature  is  left  unfurnished  with  appropriate 
inhabitants.  The  inconspicuous  air,  and  those  tracts  of 
seeming  space  too  elevated  for  human  ken,  are  traversed  by 
multitudes  of  feathered  beings,  whose  buoyancy  and  beauty  are 
alike  the  objects  of  our  admiration.  The  pointed  beak,  the  gently 
swelling  shoulder,  the  expansive  wings,  the  tapering  tail,  the  light 
and  bony  feet  of  birds,  are  all  wisely  calculated  to  assist  and 
accelerate  their  passage  through  the  thin  and  yielding  element. 
Their  bodies  are  covered  with  a  soft  and  delicate  plumage,  so 
disposed  as  to  protect  them  from  the  chilly  atmosphere  through 
which  they  pass.  Their  wings  are  made  of  the  lightest  materials, 
and  yet  the  force  with  which  they  strike  the  air  is  so  great  as  to 
propel  their  bodies  forward  with  astonishing  velocity,  whilst  the 
tail  serves  the  purpose  of  a  rudder  to  direct  their  flight.  Nor  is 
their  internal  structure  less  admirably  adapted  to  their  mode  of 
life.  The  framework  of  their  bodies  is  light  and  thin,  and  their 
muscles  equally  remarkable  for  energy  and  strength.  Their  blood 
is  hot,  and,  as  it  courses  through  their  bodies,  imparts  intense 
vitality  to  every  quivering  fibre.  Their  movements  are  conse- 
quently rapid  and  energetic.  The  falcon  cleaves  the  skies  like  a 
thunderbolt,  as  it  stoops  upon  its  quarry,  and  the  swallow  and 
the  albatross  sweep  over  geographical  degrees  in  their  long-sus- 
tained peregrinations.  The  perfection  of  their  respiration  is  per- 
haps only  second  to  that  of  insects  :  the  air  they  breathe  passes, 
not  into  their  lungs  only,  but  penetrates  to  the  remotest  parts  of 
their  system,  filling  their  very  bones  with  life,  and  endowing  them 
with  activity  and  animation  adapted  to  their  aerial  existence. 

No  one  can  have  examined  the  bony  scaffolding  of  the  pelican 
or  the  albatross,  without  being  struck  with  the  lightneSs  of  its 
proportions,  when  compared  with  the  dimensions  of  the  full- 
plumed  bird  of  which  it  once  formed  the  support — a  circumstance 
that  has  not  failed  to  arrest  the  attention  even  of  the  Muse  of 
Poetry : 

"  Their  slender  skeletons, 
So  delicately  framed  and  half  transparent, 
That  I  have  marvelled  how  a  bird  so  noble, 
When  in  his  full  magnificent  attire, 


BIRDS. 


309 


With  pinions  wider  than  the  king  of  vultures, 
And  down  elastic,  thicker  than  the  swan's, 
Should  leave  so  small  a  cage  of  ribs  to  mark 
Where  vigorous  life  had  dwelt  a  hundred  years." 

The  accompanying  engraving  represents  the  skeleton  of  a  Vul- 
ture, with  the  contour  of  the  bird  drawn  in  outline,  as  it  would 
appear  if  clothed  with  flesh  and  feathers.  The  principal  bones 
are  numbered  in  the  figure,  and  we  will  refer  to  them  seriatim, 
as  it  is  important  to  be  acquainted  with  their  appellations  and 
functions. 

The  skeleton  of  a  bird  is  composed  of  nearly  the  same  bones 


FIG.  337.— SKELETON  OF  VULTURE. 


FIG.  338. — LEG  OF  A  BIRD  PERCHING. 


as  that  of  a  quadruped  ;  but  their  form  and  disposition  are  diffe- 
rent. The  attachment  of  the  head  to  the  spinal  column  consists 
but  of  a  single  pivot — an  arrangement  that  allows  the  bird  to  turn 
its  head  so  as  to  look  directly  backwards.  The  neck  is  also  very 
moveable ;  and  as  these  animals  have  to  collect  their  food  with 
their  beak,  the  length  of  their  neck  is  in  proportion  to  the  height 
of  their  legs,  or,  in  many  water-birds,  to  the  depth  beneath  the 


3io  BIRDS. 


surface  at  which  they  procure  their  food.  The  number  of  the 
bones  in  the  neck  is  consequently  very  variable :  the  swan  has 
twenty-three,  and  the  sparrows  only  nine ;  and  their  joints  are 
50  disposed  that  the  neck  may  be  bent  in  the  form  of  the  letter  S, 
and,  consequently,  elongated  or  shortened  in  proportion  as  the 
curves  are  diminished  or  increased.  The  trunk  of  a  bird  is  an 
admirable  piece  of  mechanism,  combining  elasticity  and  strength 
with  the  utmost  compatible  degree  of  lightness.  He  is  but  a  bung- 
ling mechanic  who  makes  an  unnecessary  waste  of  material :  the 
triumph  of  mechanism  is  to  obtain  the  greatest  possible  firmness 
at  the  least  cost  of  substance  ;  and  whoever  examines  the  chest 
of  a  bird  will  at  once  acknowledge  the  transcendent  skill  evinced 
in  every  part  of  its  construction.  The  bones  of  the  back  (3),  which 
sustain  the  ribs,  are  immoveably  fixed  to  each  other ;  the  ribs  (5), 
of  the  lightest  structure,  are  locked  together  by  overlapping  plates 
— while  the  breast-bone  (6)  not  only  constitutes  a  broad  shield  or 
breast-plate,  but  is  furnished  with  a  deep  crest  or  keel,  from  whence 
the  muscles  employed  in  flight  take  their  origin.  Birds  having 
this  shield  largest  and  most  complete  are  those  that  fly  the  best. 
The  bones  of  the  shoulder  (7,  8)  are  disposed  in  a  manner  most 
favourable  to  the  support  of  the  wings,  and  the  two  collar-bones 
(7)  are  joined  together  so  as  to  form  but  one  piece,  having  the 
shape  of  the  letter  V — an  arrangement  well  calculated  to  hold  the 
shoulders  apart,  in  spite  of  the  violent  force  applied  in  the  contrary 
direction  by  the  exercise  of  the  wings,  a  force  that  increases  with 
the  energy  of  the  muscles  employed  in  flight  The  wing  of  a  bird 
corresponds  to  the  human  arm,  and,  like  it,  is  composed  of  three 
principal  parts — the  arm,  the  fore-arm,  and  the  hand.  The  bone 
of  the  arm  is  of  great  strength  and  lightness,  being  constructed 
upon  the  principle  of  a  hollow  cane.  The  fore-arm  consists  of  two 
bones,  the  length  of  which  is  in  relation  with  the  power  of  flight, 
while  the  hand  is  reduced  to  a  single  piece,  that  serves  for  the 
support  of  the  large  feathers  of  the  wing ;  there  are  also  a  rudi- 
mentary thumb  and  the  vestiges  of  a  third  finger. 

The  legs  of  a  bird  are  designed  for  support  and  for  progression ; 
sometimes  they  are  constructed  for  swimming,  and  are  frequently 
employed  for  the  purpose  of  seizing  or  holding  food.  The  bones 
of  the  haunches  (14)  are  of  great  strength,  and  solidly  fixed  to  the 
vertebral  column.  The  thigh-bone  (15)  is  short  and  directed  for- 
ward ;  the  leg  (IG)  is  strong  and  composed  of  but  one  bone;  while 
the  bones  of  the  foot  and  instep  (17)  are  represented  by  a  single 
piece,  the  length  of  which  determines  the  height  of  the  bird  on  its 


BIRDS,  311 


legs.  The  number  of  toes  (is)  varies  from  five  to  two  ;  generally, 
however,  there  are  three  directed  forwards,  and  one  backwards. 
In  many  species  there  is  a  peculiar  mechanism,  by  means  of  which, 
when  perched  upon  a  branch,  the  weight  of  their  body  tends  to 
bend  their  toes,  and,  consequently,  to  make  them  closely  embrace 
it  in  their  grasp — an  arrangement  that  permits  them  to  repose  in 
a  standing  position  without  any  danger  of  falling  while  asleep. 
Perhaps  the  engraving  (Fig.  338)  will  serve  to  illustrate  this  very 
elegant  contrivance.  The  muscle  that  bends  the  toes  (a,  b)  arises, 
not  from  the  leg,  but  from  the  haunch  (a)  :  becoming  suddenly 
converted  into  a  thin  tendon,  it  passes  at  b  in  front  of  the  knee- 
joint,  enclosed  in  a  sort  of  pulley ;  it  then  winds  round  the  bone 
of  the  leg,  to  the  back  of  the  ankle-joint  (b,  c}y  where  it  likewise 
passes  through  a  pulley  at  c — hence  it  proceeds  forwards  behind 
the  tarsal  bone  to  a7,  where  it  divides  into  the  sinews  that  bend 
the  toes.  From  this  arrangement  it  will  be  seen  that  the  weight 
of  the  bird,  by  bending  the  knee-joint  (b)  and  the  ankle-joint  (c), 
puts  the  muscle  (a,  b,  c,  d)  upon  the  stretch,  and  thus  the  toes  are 
made  to  grasp  the  branch  without  any  effort. 

The  feathers  with  which  birds  are  clothed  are  structures  of  ad- 
mirable contrivance  :  each  feather  is  composed  of  a  horny  stem, 
hollow  at  the  base,  and  provided  with  a  plume,  or  beard,  consist- 
ing of  barbs,  which  in  turn  are  furnished  with  barbules.  The  form 
of  the  feathers  varies  much  :  some  are  destitute  of  any  plume,  and 
resemble  the  quills  of  the  porcupine  ;  others  have  stiff  barbs,  with 
barbules  that  hook  into  each  other,  and  thus  form  an  expanse  of 
great  strength  and  lightness  ;  others,  again,  have  both  the  barbs 
and  barbules  long,  flexible,  and  unconnected,  rendering  them  ex- 
ceedingly soft  and  light ;  and  there  are  some  composed  of  simple 
down.  Their  colours  are  infinitely  varied,  and  are  often  com- 
parable to  those  of  flowers,  or  the  most  brilliant  gems,  in  beauty 
and  splendour.  Generally,  the  plumage  of  the  female  is  not  so 
richly  ornamented  as  that  of  the  male,  and  it  is  rare  for  the  young 
bird  to  be  clothed  in  the  same  colours  as  the  adult.  Many  like- 
wise assume  a  plumage  in  the  spring  altogether  different  from 
that  of  winter.  The  large  stiff  feathers  that  grow  on  the  wings 
of  birds  are  called  the  wing-feathers  or  the  pinion-feathers :  they 
extend  the  surface  of  the  wings  very  considerably  without  add- 
ing much  to  their  weight,  and  convert  them  into  powerful  oars, 
adapted  to  strike  against  the  air  with  such  force  and  frequency, 
that  the  shock  thus  produced  impels  the  animal  in  a  direction 
contrary  to  the  stroke.  The  ability  of  a  bird  to  sustain  itself  in 


3i2  BIRDS. 


the  air,  and  move  through  it  with  rapidity,  is  in  proportion  to  the 
expanse  of  its  wings.  The  feathers  that  contribute  most  to  the 
extent  of  the  wing,  and  are  most  useful  in  flight,  are  those  attached 
to  the  hand,  and  consequently  farthest  from  the  body.  They  are 
always  ten  in  number,  and  are  called  primaries.  The  feathers  of 
the  fore-arm  are  called  secondaries,  and  those  which  are  attached 
to  the  arm  humerus,  and  the  feeblest  are  the  terliaries.  The  bas- 
tard feathers  are  those  that  grow  from  the  thumb,  and  the  coverts 
those  that  spread  over  the  bases  of  the  quills. 

It  is  evident  that  the  greater  the  surface  of  the  wings,  all  things 
being  equal,  the  greater  will  be  the  power  of  flight  ;  hence  it 
follows  that  birds  with  long  wings  are  not  only  able  to  fly  with 
greater  rapidity  than  birds  with  short  wings,  but  they  are  also 
able  to  support  themselves  for  a  longer  time  in  the  air,  because 
they  are  not  obliged  to  repeat  the  movement  of  these  organs 
so  frequently,  and  therefore  do  not  become  so  readily  fatigued. 
Thus  all  birds  remarkable  for  rapid  and  long-sustained  flight 
have  large  wings,  while  those  that  have  short  or  moderate  wings, 
compared  with  the  volume  of  their  body,  fly  less  swiftly,  and 
require  rest  more  frequently.  The  feathers  of  the  tail  likewise 
assist  in  flight,  and  are  used  as  a  rudder.  They  are  usually  twelve 
in  number,  and  are  called  the  tail-feathers :  the  name  of  tail- 
coverts  is  given  to  those  feathers  that  cover  their  base. 

Birds,  instead  of  teeth,  are  provided  with  a  strong  horny  beak ; 
their  aliment  is  generally  swallowed  without  being  divided ;  on 
this  account  most  birds  are  provided  with  a  crop  or  pouch  wherein 
the  food  is  lodged,  and  with  a  gizzard  or  muscular  apparatus, 
lined  with  a  thick  insensible  skin,  that  serves  to  grind  and  com- 
minute the  food.  In  granivorous  birds  the  walls  of  this  gizzard 
are  very  thick  and  strong ;  but  in  birds  of  prey,  and  more  espe- 
cially in  such  as  feed  upon  fish,  it  is  thin  and  membranous. 

Birds,  like  reptiles  and  fishes,  are  oviparoiis — that  is,  they  lay 
eggs,  from  which  the  young  are  hatched,  and  their  eggs  are  always 
covered  with  a  hard  calcareous  shell.  To  secure  the  maturation 
of  the  enclosed  young,  it  is  necessary  that  the  eggs  should  be 
kept  at  a  certain  degree  of  heat.  In  very  warm  climates  the  heat 
of  the  sun  is  sometimes  sufficient,  but  in  most  cases  one  or  both 
parents  maintain  the  necessary  temperature  by  sitting  or  in- 
cubation. 

The  time  required  for  the  development  of  the  young  varies  in 
different  races ;  but  it  is  the  same  in  all  birds  of  the  same  species. 
Thus,  it  is  from  forty  to  forty-five  days  for  swans,  twenty-five  days 


BIRDS.  313 


for  ducks,  twenty-one  days  for  hens,  from  twelve  to  fifteen  days  for 
domesticated  canaries,  and  only  twelve  days  for  the  humming  bird. 

Almost  all  birds  construct  a  nest,  to  receive  their  eggs  and  serve 
as  a  dwelling  for  their  progeny,  which,  during  the  early  period  of 
life,  are  unprovided  with  feathers,  extremely  delicate,  and  incap- 
able of  feeding  themselves.  Generally,  there  is  displayed  in  these 
structures'  an  art,  an  ingenuity,  and  an  elegance  well  calculated  to 
excite  our  admiration.  All  the  successive  generations  build  nests 
exactly  alike,  even  under  circumstances  precluding  the  possibility 
of  their  receiving  instruction  from  their  parents.  A  wonderful  in- 
,stinct  guides  them,  and  induces  them  to  take  many  precautions, 
the  utility  of  which  they  cannot  be  supposed  to  anticipate  or 
appreciate  beforehand. 

The  classification  of  the  feathered  tribes  is  founded  chiefly  upon 
the  modifications  that  occur  in  their  beak  and  feet,  the  instruments 
whereby  they  obtain  their  food.  According  to  the  characters  thus 
afforded,  they  are  divided  into  seven  Orders,  as  in  the  table  on 
page  314. 

ORDER  RAPTORES  *  OR  AcciPiTRES.f 

The  Raptorial  Birds,  or  Birds  of  Prey,  are  at  once  recognized 
by  their  beak,  which  is  hooked  and  terminated  by  a  sharp  point 
bent  downwards,  and  by  their  feet  being  very  strong  and  armed 
with  formidable  talons. 

They  are  divided  into  the  Diurnal,  or  those  that  fly  by  day, 
and  the  Nocturnal,  or  those  that  fly  only  by  night. 

DIURNAL    BIRDS  OF  PREY. 

At  the  head  of  this  rapacious  tribe  may  be  placed 

The  Eagles  (Aquila),  distinguished  by  having  their  legs  feathered  to  the 
roots  of  their  toes,  and  their  wings  reaching  to  the  extremity  of  their  tail. 
Their  vision  is  wonderfully  extensive,  and  they  are  said  to  be  able  to  look  at 
the  unclouded  sun.  These  birds  are  remarkable  for  the  nobleness  of  their  bear- 
ing and  for  their  daring  courage.  They  are  endowed  with  powerful  limbs,  are 
fond  of  carnage,  and  in  general  prefer  attacking  animals  of  considerable  size. 
It  is  only  when  pressed  by  hunger  that  they  assail  small  birds,  and  will  not 
eat  carrion  even  when  in  a  state  of  absolute  want.  Eagles  build  their  nest 
upon  the  flat  surface  afforded  by  some  projecting  rock  or  on  a  platform  of 
some  lofty  mountain.  Its  dimensions  are  very  considerable,  and  every  year 
contributes  to  its  increase,  for  it  is  rare  for  these  birds  to  abandon  their  first 
monument  of  parental  tenderness.  Those  that  leave  it  return  periodically  to 

*  Reptor,  a  $eizer  or  snatcher.         \  Accipiter,  a  liaii'k :  from  Accipio,  to  take  by  force. 


BIRDS. 


lay  their  eggs.  Their  nest  is  frequently  composed  of  such  large  pieces  of  wood, 
that  it  would  be  difficult  to  believe  they  were  ever  carried  by  birds  did  we  not 
know  the  extraordinary  strength  of  their  limbs.  The  pieces  are  so  arranged 
as  not  to  yield  readily  to  the  force  of  the  wind,  and  they  support  boughs,  form- 
ing a  solid  habitation  called  an  eirie.  Those  species  that  in  the  construction 
of  their  nests  employ  only  rushes  and  reeds,  accumulate  them  in  gseat  quanti- 


EAGLES. 


3*5 


ties,  and  fix  them  so  firmly  to  the  plat- 
form, that  rains  or  storms  seldom  cause 
their  destruction.  While  the  female  is 
detained  in  the  eirie  by  the  incubation 
of  her  eggs,  the  male  hunts  alone,  and 
as  it  is  at  the  season  when  game  begins 
to  abound,  he  easily  provides  for  his 


FIG.  340. — FOOT  OF  EAGLE. 


FIG.  339. — BEAK  OF  FALCOX. 

own  subsistence  as  well 
as  for  that  of  his  com- 
panion. Eagles  live  on 
wild  mountains,  and 
ordinarily  build  their 
nests  on  the  highest 
and  most  precipitous 
rocks.  The  duration 
of  incubation  is  about 
thirty  days. 
The  Golden  Eagle 
(Aquila  chrysaetas)  is 
one  of  the  noblest  of 
the  feathered  inhabi- 
tants of  the  British 

Isles.  He  is  of  large  size,  his  countenance  and  aspect  are  grand,  and  his 
movement  majestic.  Whether  viewed  as  he  sits  in  awful  solitude  on  the  edge 
of  some  lofty  crag,  or  sailing  on  broadly-expanded  pinions  above  the  clouds, 
he  seems  to  feel  himself  the  monarch  of  the  scene  around. 

The  Fisher  Eagles  (Halietus]  keep  near  the  margin  of  the  sea  and  live 
principally  upon  fish. 

The  Great  Harpy  Of  America  (Fako  harpyia]  is  superior  in  size  to  the  com- 
mon eagle.  Of  all  birds,  this  possesses  the  most  terrific  beak  a^id  claws.  Such  is  its 
strength,  that  it  is  said  to  have  cleft  a  man's  skull  with  its  beak.  Its  ordinary  food  is 
the  sloth,  and  it  often  carries  off  fawns. 

The  Falcons  (Falco}  are  remarkable  on  account  of  their  projecting  eye- 
brows, which  make  the  eyes  appear  as  if  deeply  sunk  in  the  head,  and  give  to 
the  physiognomy  an  appearance  altogether  different  from  that  of  the  vultures. 
They  have  a  lofty,  rapid,  sustained  flight ;  their  sense  of  sight  is  more  ex- 
tended and  clearer  than  that  of  any  other  animal,  enabling  them  to  perceive 
the  smallest  prey  when  they  themselves  are  out  of  sight.  Most  of  them  feed 
on  the  flesh  of  victims  newly  killed  by  their  own  talons,  but  when  pressed  by 
hunger  they  do  not  refuse  dead  animals.  Instead  of  eating  food  on  the  spot 
as  vultures  do,  they  bear  it  off  to  their  eirie.  The  largest  species  attack  quad- 


i6 


BIRDS. 


TIG.      41.— G)LDEN    EAC  LE. 


FIG.  342. — PEREGRINE  FALCON. 


rupeds  and  birds,  others  feed  on  reptiles,  some  live  on  fishes,  and  others  are 
entirely  insectivorous.      They  all  seize  their  prey  with  their  feet.     Some,  as 


VULTURES. 


317 


the  falcon  and  the  kite,  precipitate  themselves  perpendicularly  upon  their 
game ;  others  (the  buzzards  and  the  goshawks)  attack  obliquely  or  sideways. 
They  are  generally  silent,  and  very  difficult  to  tame ;  but  some  of  them  are 
trained  to  hunt  on  the  wing. 


fir 


;^:^ 

FIG.  343.—  GRIFFON  VCLTITRE. 


The  Vultures  ( Vultin}.  These  birds  have  a  disagreeable  aspect  and 
tainted  odour  ;  they  are  cowardly,  and  prefer  the  most  putrid  carrion  to  living 
prey ;  and  in  order  to  preserve  cleanliness  while  engaged  in  their  filthy  ban- 
quet, by  a  wise  provision  their  head  and  neck  are  denuded  of  feathers.  The 
power  of  their  talons  does  not  correspond  with  their  size,  and  they  make  use 
of  their  beak  rather  than  of  their  claws.  They  are  extremely  voracious  ;  but 
after  they  have  been  completely  satiated,  they  can  wait  a  long  time  for  an 
opportunity  of  feeding  again.  Their  sense  of  smell  is  acute,  and  enables  them 
to  perceive  at  immense  distances  the  remains  of  dead  animals,  which  they  seek 
as  food.  In  hot  climates  these  birds  are  very  useful :  they  serve  to  cleanse 
the  streets  from  putrescent  substances,  and  may  be  seen  parading  the  towns 


11IXDS. 


in  little  bands  in  search  of  carrion.  Vultures  live  in  pairs  ;  they  build  theit 
nests  on  inaccessible  rocks,  and  construct  them  of  pieces  of  wood,  joined  to- 
gether by  a  sort  of  mortar.  Their  young,  when  born,  are  covered  with  down, 
and  are  fed  with  half-digested  food,  which  is  disgorged  by  their  parents  before 
them. 

Grri'Sons  (Gyflaefos)  in  their  conformation  and  habits  very  closely  resemble 
the  vultures  ;  but  they  have  their  head  and  neck  almost  entirely  covered  with 
feathers.  To  this  tribe  belongs  the  Ldmmer  Geyer,  the  largest  bird  of  prey 
found  on  the  Eastern  continent,  the  higher  mountain  chains  of  which  it  in- 
habits. It  attacks  lambs,  goats,  and  chamois.  Generally  it  endeavours  to 
make  its  victims  throw  themselves  from  precipitous  rocks,  and  devours  them 
after  they  have  been  killed  by  their  fall — hence  it  was  called  by  the  Romans 
Ossifraga,  or  the  bone-breaker. 


FIG.  344.— BARN  OWL. 


NOCTURNAL   BIRDS   OF   PREY. 

The  nocturnal  birds  of  prey  have  a  very  large  head  and  a  very 
short  neck ;  the  eyes  are  directed  forwards  and  surrounded  by  a 
circle  of  fringed  feathers.  The  pupil  of  the  eye  is  large,  and  the 
sight  imperfect  in  the  day-time.  The  external  toe  can  be  directed 
forwards  or  backwards  at  will.  Their  wings  are  strong,  and  the 
wing-feathers  have  soft  barbs,  covered  with  a  sort  of  down.  These 
birds  are  often  designated  under  the  collective  name  of 

The  Owls  ^Strix).  They  are  blinded  by  broad  day,  and  only  see  well  in 
the  twilight  or  at  night  when  it  is  not  very  dark,  the  time  they  choose  for 
hunting ;  and  as  their  silky  feathers  enable  them  to  fly  without  noise,  it  is 


PASSE  RES. 


319 


then  very  easy  for  them  to  pounce  upon  birds  and  small  quadrupeds.  There 
are  some  species  that  pursue  their  prey  in  the  day-time ;  but  during  this  period 
they  generally  retire  into  hollow  trees  or  rents  in  the  walls  ;  sometimes  they 
lie  flat  upon  the  branches  of  trees,  and  then  all  the  little  birds  of  which  they 
are  the  terror  by  twilight  come  out  to  insult  them.  During  the  night  they 
often  utter  plaintive  cries,  regarded  by  the  vulgar  as  unfortunate  omens.  In 
reality,  these  birds  are  more  useful  than  injurious,  on  account  of  the  number 
of  small  rats  and  mice  that  they  destroy.  Doubtless  their  large  head  and 
their  habitual  tranquillity  obtained  for  them  the  reputation  for  wisdom  which 
they  enjoyed  among  the  ancients. 

ORDER  PASSERES.* 

This  Order  includes  all  birds  that  are  neither  swimmers,  waders, 
climbers,  rapacious,  nor  yet  gallinaceous  ;  that  is,  it  contains  all 
birds  that  are  not  assignable  to  any  of  the  other  Orders.  Its 
characteristics,  therefore,  are  purely  negative ;  yet,  although  we 
cannot  unite  all  the  species  that  belong  to  it  under  a  common  de- 
scription, they  nevertheless  resemble  each  other  in  the  totality 
or  aggregate  of  their  structure.  The  Passerine  tribes  have  neither 
the  violence  of  the  birds  of  prey  nor  the  fixed  regimen  of  the 
gallinaceous  or  aquatic  birds.  They  live  upon  insects,  fruits,  and 
grain ;  but  those  with  strong  beaks  live  more  exclusively  upon 
grain,  those  with  slender  beaks  upon  insects.  The  proportional 
length  of  their  wings  and  the  extent  of  their  flight  are  as  variable 
as  their  habits.  They  have  four  toes,  generally  three  in  front  and 
one  behind  ;  sometimes  all  four  are  in  front ;  but  there  are  rarely 
two  before  and  two  behind,  as  in  the  Order  of  climbing  birds  (Scan- 
sores). 

The  Order  Passeres  is  divided  into  five  tribes,  as  in  the  follow- 
ing table : 

/The  external  toe/ Notched  on  both  sides  near  its  point.  Dentirostres. 


m 

3 

o 


shorter  than  the 
middle  one,  and 
free    for    the< 
greater  part  of 
its  length.     .     . 

Upper  mandible  \Withoutanotch 


/Short,  wide,  and^ 
S^    Fissirostres. 
very  open   .     . ) 

sSsand.co:}Co^°s^s. 

SXetedand}Ten-airostres. 


The  external  toe  almost  as  long  as  the  middle  one,  to ")  gvnda  ctvlse 
x  which  it  is  united  as  far  as  to  the  last  joint  but  one  j  S3.7Iltiaci'J1«*' 


*  Passer,  a  sparrffiv. 


320 


BIRDS. 


TRIBE   I. — DENTIROSTRES.* 

This  family  includes  those  Passeres  only  that  have  the  beak 
notched  on  both  sides,  near  the  point.  They  are  all  insectivorous, 
and  most  of  them  also  eat  berries  and  other  tender  fruits ;  such 


are 


FIG.  345. — GREY  SHRIKE. 

The  Shrikes  (Lanhis).  Though  small  in  size,  these  birds  are  full  of  cou- 
rage ;  they  contend  with  birds  of  prey,  and,  like  them,  live  by  rapine.  They 
feed  on  insects  and  small  birds,  and  always  inhabit  woods  and  bushes.  They 
live  in  families,  and  fly  irregularly  and  precipitately,  uttering  shrill  cries.  The 
Butcher-Bird  (Lanius  collurio)  destroys  a  great  many  small  animals,  birds, 
and  young  toads,  as  well  as  insects,  such  as  grasshoppers,  beetles,  &c.  :  these 
it  has  the  habit  of  impaling  on  the  thorns  of  bushes,  in  order  to  devour  them 
at  leisure  or  to  find  them  again  when  wanted. 

*  Dens,  dentis,  a  tooth  ;  rostrum,  a  beak :  tooth-beaks. 


SWALLOWS. 


321 


FIG.  346. — HEAD  OF  TYRANNCS. 

The  Fly-catchers  (Muscicapa}*  the  Thrushes,  the  Nightingale,  the  Wrens, 
the  Wagtails,  the  Titlarks,  and  many  others  of  similar  habits  belong  to  this 
family. 

TRIBE  II. — FISSIROSTRES.f 

The  Fissiros- 
trcs  are  distin- 
guished by  their 
beak,  which  is 
short,  wide,  hori- 
zontal, flattened, 
slightly  hooked, 
without  any 
notch,  and  very 
deeply  cleft ;  the 
opening  of  the 
mouth  is  thus 
very  wide,  and 
they  easily  cap- 
ture the  insects 
they  pursue  on 
the  wing.  These 
birds  are  exclu- 
sively insectivorous  :  they  are  also  migratory,  and  are  found  in 
all  parts  of  the  world.  This  tribe  is  divided  into  two  sections— 


FIG.  347.-  HEAD  OF  NYCTIBIUS. 


*  Musca,  a  fly  ;  capio,  to  take  or  catch. 
t  Fis&us,  cloven ;  rostrum,  a  beak :  cleft-be 


rostrum,  a  beak :  cleft-beaks. 


21 


322 


BIRDS. 


namely,  the  Diurnal  Fissirostres,  with  a  dense  plumage,  and  a 
beak  that  opens  to  beneath  the  eyes  ;  and  the  Nocturnal  Fissi- 
rostres,  the  plumage  of  which  is  soft  and  light,  like  that  of  the 
owls,  and  their  beak  opens  to  a  point  beyond  the  eyes. 
To  the  Diurnal  Fissirostres  belongs  the  family  of 

The  Swallows 
(HirundinidcB]  re- 
markable for  the 
length  of  their  wings. 
They  are  divided  into 
Swallows,  properly  so 
called,  and  Swifts ; 
the  latter  are  known 
by  the  peculiar  con- 
formation of  their 
feet :  the  thumb  is 
directed  forward  like 
the  other  toes,  which 
are  all  separate,  and 
each  has  but  three 
joints,  whilst  in  the 
swallows  the  thumb 
points  backwards,  as 
in  the  other  Passeri- 
n£e.  The  swallows, 
properly  so  called, 
have  a  triangular 
beak,  the  legs  short, 
the  wings  very  long, 
and  the  tail  usually 
forked.  They  delight 
in  places  where  flies 
and  other  insects  are 
common;  they  con- 
struct their  nests  with 
great  care,  sometimes 
in  the  ground.  Most 
of  the  swallows  leave 
us  in  September,  and 
migrate  in  large  flocks 
to  warm  countries, 
where  they  pass  the 
winter;  they  return 
in  the  beginning  of 
spring,  and  take  pos- 
session of  the  nests 
they  had  left  the  pre- 
ceding year.  Their 
habits  are  mild,  and 
FIG.  349.— SWIFT.  they  are  remarkable 


FIG.  348.—  SWALLOW. 


SWIFTS. 


323 


for  their  sociability.  They  often  join  together  in  great  numbers  to  drive  off 
an  enemy,  the  attack  of  which  any  one  of  them  may  fear.  The  swallow 
announces,  even  to  the  swifts  and  other  small  birds,  the  approach  of  a  bird  of 
prey.  At 'the  sight  of  an  owl  or  a  hawk  it  utters  a  piercing  cry ;  immediately  all 
the'birds  of  its  species  and  the  swifts  assemble  round  it,  and  often  fly  in  pha- 
lanx against  the  enemy,  which  they  harass  until  he  is  forced  to  retreat. 

The  Swifts  (Chcetura,  Cypselics]  have  a  forked  tail,  and  surpass  even  the 
swallows  in  their  powers  of  flight ;  in  fact,  they  scarcely  walk  at  all,  and  are 
seen  continually  in  flocks,  pursuing  insects  in  the  upper  regions  of  the  atmo- 
sphere with  loud  cries.  They  nestle  in  holes  in  walls  and  rocks,  and  climb 
along  smooth  surfaces  with  facility. 

Among  the  Nocturnal  Fissirostres  are 

The  Goatsuckers  (Caprimulgus)*  consisting  of  several  genera,  very 
much  resembling  each  other  in  their  plumage  and  habits.  They  only  appear 
in  the  evening,  and  for  this  reason  they  might  be  called  crepuscular  birds. 


FIG.  350.— NIGHT  JAR. 

The  silky  nature  of  their  feathers  and  their  mixed  and  mottled  plumage  give 
them,  as  far  as  relates  to  their  colour,  a  strong  resemblance  to  owls.  Their 
eyes  are  large  ;  their  beak,  furnished  with  strong  moustaches,  and  more 
deeply  cleft  than  in  swallows,  is  capable  of  receiving  the  largest  insects,  which 
it  retains  by  means  of  a  viscid  saliva.  The  nostrils  are  in  the  form  of  small 
tubes,  near  its  base.  Their  wings  are  long,  their  legs  short  and  feathered, 
and  the  thumb  can  be  directed  forwards.  These  birds  live  solitary,  and  only 
fly  during  the  twilight  Or  on  fine  nights  ;  they  pursue  moths  and  other  noc- 
turnal insects,  and  lay  a  small  number  of  eggs  on  the  ground,  without  taking 
much  care  to  construct  a  nest.  When  they  fly,  the  rushing  of  the  air  into 


*  Capra,  a  goat ;  mulgeo,  to  milk. 


21—2 


324 


BIRDS. 


their  wide  mouths  produces  a  peculiar  humming  noise.     They  have  been  ac- 
cused of  sucking  goats,  whence  their  name  ;  but  this  is  an  unfounded  calumny 
that,  perhaps,  had  its  origin  from  the  circumstance  of  their  frequenting  helds 
where  goats  and  sheep  are  herded,  in  pursuit  of  the  insects  that  are  kttracte 
by  their  presence. 

TRIBE  III.— CONIROSTRES.* 

All  the  birds  of  this  tribe  have  a  strong  beak,  more  or  less 
conical  in  its  shape,  and  without  a  notch.  They  live  more  ex- 
clusively upon  grain,  in  proportion  to  the  strength  and  thickness 
of  their  bills.  The  principal  genera  are  the  Starlings,  the  Larks, 
the  Titmice,  the  Finches,  the  Sparrows,  the  Crossbills,  the  Crows, 
and  the  Birds  of  Paradise. 


FIG.  351. — SK.Y-LAKK. 

The  Larks  (Alaudd)  have  a  straight,  short  beak ;  their  head  is  small,  and 
furnished  with  a  little  crest  of  feathers ;  the  nail  of  the  hinder  toe  is  straight, 
and  much  larger  than  that  of  any  of  the  other  toes.  The  conformation  of 
their  claws  does  not  allow  these  birds  to  alight  on  trees ;  but  it  is  useful  to  them 
on  the  ground,  where  they  generally  dwell,  feeding  on  grasses,  tender  plants, 
insects,  and  larva;.  They  also  have 'the  habit  of  dusting  themselves  by  flutter- 
ing on  the  ground.  The  lark  is  common  throughout  Europe.  _  During  the 
summer  these  birds  prefer  dry  elevated  situations,  and  delight  in  soaring  to 
great  heights  in  the  air,  singing  in  a  strong  melodious  voice.  In  winter 
they  assemble  in  large  numbers  on  the  level  country  in  search  of  food.  They 
are  often  kept  in  cages,  and  become  reconciled  to  captivity.  Their  flesh  is 
esteemed  a  delicacy.  _ 

*  Conus,  a  cone;  rostrum,  a  beak :  with  conical  beaks. 


TITMICE. 


325 


- 


The  Titmice,  or  Tits  (Panes),  have  a  slender  and  very  short  beak.  They 
are  extremely  lively  little  birds,  and  may  be  constantly  seen  darting  from 
branch  to  branch  in  short  flights,  climbing  and  suspending  themselves  in  all 
sorts  of  positions,  plucking  the  seeds  upon  which  they  feed.  They  also  eat 
many  insects,  and  do  not  spare  small  birds  when  they  find  them  enfeebled  by 
sickness  or  entangled  in  snares ;  they  may  be  often  seen  to  pierce  their  skulls, 
by  repeated  strokes  of  their  beak,  in  order  to  devour  the  brains;  they  also 
pick  the  bones  to  a 
skeleton.  In  propor- 
tion to  their  size, 
which  is  very  small, 
these  are  the  boldest 
of  all  birds.  They 
attack  owls  fiercely. 
Theymaketheirnests 
in  the  hollows  of  old 
trees,  and  lay  more 
eggs  than  any  others 
of  the  family. 

Dr.  Macgillivray 
records  the  observa- 
tions of  a  friend  on  a 
pair  of  blue  titmice  £M 
while  rearing  their 
young.  The  parent 
birds  began  their  la- 
bour of  love  at  half- 
past  three  o'clock  in 

Ssn&STLS  f;€aHra»!'^Kffi- 

eight  o'clock  in  the  v* 
evening,  after  being 
almost  incessantly 
engaged  for  eighteen 
hours,  during  which 
time  they  returned  to 
their  nest  475  times, 

flying  to  and  from  a  plantation  more  than  150  yards  from  their  nest;  some- 
times they  brought  at  each  visit  a  single  caterpillar,  -sometimes  two  or  three 
small  ones.  The  number  of  destructive  insects  thus  killed,  while  birds  are 
feeding  their  young,  must  be  astonishing. 


FIG.  352. — LONG-TAILED  TIT  AND  XEST. 


The  Finches  (Fringilld)  are  too  well  known  to  require  de- 
scription. They  form  an  extensive  family,  embracing  the  Weavers, 
the  Linnets,  the  Goldfinches,  the  Chaffinches,  the  Canary,  the  Bull- 
finch, tind  other  cage  birds. 

The  Crows  (Corvus)  have  a  large  beak,  straight  at  the  base,  curved  towards 
the  point,  and  cutting  at  the  edges ;  then-  nostrils  are  concealed  by  long  hairs 
directed  forwards ;  their  toes  are  entirely  divided,  and  their  wings  appear 
clipped  at  their  extremities.  They  live  in  troops,  and  are  cunning  and  dis- 
trustful ;  they  readily  become  familiar,  and  some  of  them  may  be  taught  to 


320 


BIRDS. 


FIG.  353. — CAKKJOX  CROW. 

speak  with  considerable,  facility.  The  senses  of  these  birds  are  very  acute, 
more  particularly  that  of  smell ;  they  have  the  habit  of  stealing  and  conceal- 
ing everything  they  find,  even  articles  that  are  useless  to  them,  such  as  spoons 
and  pieces  of  money.  They  lay  up  provision  for  the  future  season,  and  feed 
on  every  kind  of  aliment,  grains,  fruits,  insects,  and  worms,  and  living  or  dead 
flesh,  so  that  they  well  deserve  the  name  of  Omnivorous.  The  Raven,  the 
Jackdaw,  the  Magpie,  the  Jay,  all  belong  to  the  same  family. 

The  Birds  of  Paradise  (Paradisea}.  These  birds  resemble  crows  in 
everything  but  their  plumage,  which  is  perhaps  the  most  sumptuous  bestowed 
upon  the  feathered  creation.  They  are  all  of  them  indigenous  to  New  Guinea 
and  the  neighbouring  islands.  Their  history  was  for  a  long  while  a  tissue  of 
fable  and  absurdity.  The  female,  it  was  asserted,  laid  her  eggs  while  flying, 
and  had  no  legs ;  when  sleeping,  they  were  said  to  suspend  themselves  by  the 
long  feathers  of  the  tail,  to  feed  exclusively  upon  dew,  and  never  to  touch  the 
earth  while  alive.  All  these  fictions  have,  however,  found  their  proper  level, 
and  the  history  of  these  beautiful  birds  is  now  pretty  well  known.  The  most 
celebrated  species  is 

The  Emerald  Bird  of  Paradise  (Paradisea  apoda}.  Its  head  is  small,  but 
ornamented  with  feathers  that  rival  in  brilliancy  those  of  the  peacock  ;  the  neck  is  of  a 
delicate  yellow,  and  the  body  of  a  rich  brown  tint  sprinkled  with  gold,  while  two  long- 
bearded  filaments  constitute  its  tail.  The  long,  light,  and  graceful  feathers  of  this  bird 
form  the  most  beautiful,  and,  alas !  the  most  sought-for,  plumes  for  ladies'  head-dresses; 
so  that  the  race  will  probably  soon  become  extinct. 

The  Birds  of  Paradise  travel  in  troops  of  thirty  or  forty  under  the  direction  of  a  chief, 
which  the  Indians  call  the  king.  In  May  and  June  (probably  the  season  of  pairing) 
they  are  in  a  state  of  great  excitement  and  incessant  activity,  and  the  males  assemble 
together  to  exercise,  dress,  and  display  their  magnificent  plumage.  For  this  pm-pose 
they  prefer  certain  lofty,  large-leaved  trees,  and  on  these,  early  in  the  morning,  from 
ten  to  twenty  full-plumaged  birds  assemble,  as  the  natives  express  it,  ' '  to  play  ant? 


BIRDS   OF  PARADISE. 


327 


dance."  They  open 
their  wings,  stretch  out 
their  necks,  shake  their 
bodies,  and  keep  their 
l°nS  golden  plumes 
opened  and  vibrating — • 
constantly  changing 
their  positions,  flying 
across  and  across  each 
other  from  branch  to 
branch,  and  appearing 
pjroud  of  their  activity 
and  beauty.  The  long 
downy  golden  feathers 
are  displayed  in  the 
manner  in  which  alone 
they  can  be  seen  to  full 
advantage :  instead  of 
hanging  down  each  side, 
as  during  repose  and 
flight,  they  are  erected 
vertically  over  the  back, 
and  there  opened  and 
spread  out  like  a  fan, 
completely  overshadow- 
ing the  whole  body. 
The  effect  of  this  is  in- 
expressibly beautiful. 
The  large  ungainly  legs 
are  no  longer  a  deform- 
ity, as  the  bird  crouches 
upon  them.  The  dark 
brown  body  and  wings  form  but  a  central  support  to  the  splendour  above,  from  which 
more  brilliant  colours  might  distract  attention,  while  the  pale  yellow  head,  swelling 
throat  of  rich  metallic  green,  and  bright  golden  eye,  give  vivacity  and  life  to  the  whole 
figure.  Above  rise  the  intensely  shining  orange-coloured  plumes,  richly  marked  with 
a  stripe  of  deep  red,  and  opening  out  into  broad  waving  wreaths  of  airy  down,  curving 
and  closing  upon  each  other  so-  as  to  form  a  sort  of  halo,  in  the  centre  of  which  the 
bright  green  head  looks  like  a  little  emerald  sun,  with  its  rays  formed  by  the  filaments 
of  the  two  plumes. 

TRIBE  IV— TEXVIROSTRES.* 

The  birds  composing  this  tribe  have  a  slender  elongated  beak, 
always  without  a  notch  ; 
it  is  sometimes  straight 
and  sometimes  bent  like 
a  bow,  The  principal 
genera  are  the  Nut- 
hatches, the  Creepers,  FlG-  335-- HEAD  OF  SUN-BIRD. 

the  Humming-Birds,  and  the  Hoopoes. 


. 


FIG.  354.— BIRDS  OK  PARADISE. 


*  Tenuis,  slender ;  rostrum,  a  beak :  slender-billed. 


328 


BIRDS. 


FIG.  356.— NUTHATCH. 


FIG.  357. — TREE  CREEPER. 


The  Nuthatches  (Sitta) 
have  a  medium-sized,  de- 
pressed, straight  beak,  which 
is  cylindrical,  conical,  and 
cutting  at  the  point.  Their 
tongue  is  short  and  very 
slightly  protractile.  They 
climb  trees  in  all  directions 
in  search  of  insects,  and 
nestle  in  their  trunks.  The 
common  European  Nut- 
hatch is  of  a  bluish  ash-co- 
lour ;  it  is  sedentary  and 
inhabits  forest  trees.  The 
male  assists  the  female  in 
spring  in  the  construction  of 
her  nest.  They  establish 
themselves  in  a  hole  in  the 
tree,  and  if  the  hole  is  too 
large  for  them,  they  reduce 
its  size  by  plastering  it  with 
mud,  a  habit  that  has  ac- 
quired for  them  their  name 
of  "  Mason  Pie."  They  line 
the  interior  with  a  thin  bed 
of  moss,  upon  which  the 
female  lays  from  five  to 
seven  greyish  eggs,  speckled 
with  red  spots.  The  young 
escape  from  their  shell 
about  the  month  of  May, 
and  are  very  soon  able  to 
provide  for  themselves. 
These  birds  feed  on  grain 
and  seeds,  more  especially 
flax-seed ;  they  likewise  eat 
beech-nuts  and  hazel-nuts, 
the  latter  of  which  they  fix 
firmly  in  some  crevice,  and 
then  pierce  them  by  repeat- 
ed blows  of  their  sharp  beak. 
The  Creepers  (Certhia) 
have  their  beak  compressed 
and  slender,  more  or  less 
bent  like  a  bow,  and  trian- 
gular; their  tail  is  slanting, 
and  furnished  with  stiff 
sharp  quills,  serving  to 
assist  them  in  climbing 
trees ;  their  tongue  is  sharp 
and  adapted  for  piercing  in- 
sects, upon  which  they  feed. 


HUMMING-BIRDS. 


329 


The  Hum- 
ming -Birds 


celebrated  for 
the  metallic 
lustre  of  their 
plumage,  as 
well  as  for  their 
tiny  dimen- 
sions. They 
inhabit  Ameri- 
ca and  the  ad- 
jacent islands. 
Their  beak  is 
very  long, 
sometimes 
straight  and 
so  met  i  me  s 
bent,  tubular, 
and  very  slen- 
der. Their 
tongue  is  long, 
extensible,  and 
divided  into 
two  filaments. 
Their  wings 
are  proportion- 
ately very  long, 
and  their  plu- 
mage some- 
times orna- 
mented with 
feathers  as  bril- 
liant as  pre- 
cious stones. 
They  feed  on 
the  nectar  of 
flowers,  about 
which  they 
may  be  seen 
buzzingandba- 
lancing  them- 
selves in  the 
air.  They 

sometimes  eat 
small  flies  and 
diminutive  in- 
sects found  in 
the  flower  - 
bells.  They 
live  in  pairs 


FlG.   358. — HfMMIXG-BlRUS. 


FIG.  359.— HOOPOE. 


, 
and  defend  their  nest  most  courageously. 


33o  BIRDS. 


The  Hoopoes  (Upupa)  have  an  ornament  on  the  head,  formed  of  a  double 
row  of  feathers,  that  they  can  erect  at  will. 


TRIBE  V. — SYNDACTYL/E.* 

The  birds  belonging  to  this  tribe  are  recognizable  by  having 
the  external  toe  almost  as  long  as  the  middle  one,  to  which  it  is 
joined  by  a  membrane  that  reaches  as  far  as  the  last  joint  but 
one.  The  principal  genera  are  the  Kingfishers,  the  Bee-Eaters, 
and  the  Hornbills,  all  readily  distinguishable  by  the  structure  of 
the  beak. 


FIG.  360.— BEE-EATER. 

Bee-Eaters  (Merops}  have  the  bill  of  moderate  size,  cutting,  pointed,  and 
slightly  curved,  without  any  notch  at  the  end.  The  common  European  Bee- 
Eater  (Merops  apiaster\  the  one  found  in  Europe,  has  a  fawn-coloured  back, 
a  deep  blue  front,  and  a  yellow  throat,  surmounted  with  black.  It  lives  upon 
insects,  particularly  wasps  and  bees,  which  it  seizes  while  on  the  wing.  It 
constructs  its  nest  on  the  precipitous  banks  of  streams  and  large  rivers,  dig- 
ging to  a  considerable  depth. 

*  fffo,  syn,  together  with  ;  5a.KTv\os,  dactylos,  a  finger  or  toe — i.e.,  having  conjoined  toes* 


KINGFISHERS. 


PIG.  561.— KINGFISHER. 

The  Kingfishers  (Alcedd]  have  a  quadrangular  beak,  which  is  long, 
straight,  pointed,  and  trenchant ;  their  legs  are  short,  and  bare  to  above  the 
knees.  The  only  species  found  in  Europe  is  the  Alcedo  ispida,  a  beautiful 
bird.  His  plumage  is  green  and  black  above,  with  a  stripe  of  red  beneath, 
and  a  riband  of  the  same  colour  on  each  side  of  the  neck.  His  delight  is  to 
dwell  amidst  the  most  sequestered  scenes  on  the  borders  of  rivers  and  streams 
abounding  in  small  fish  and  insects,  upon  which  he  feeds.  On  the  broken  or 
rocky  bank  of  his  aquatic  retreat  he  may  be  frequently  seen  perched  on  some 
projecting  bough,  scrutinizing  the  waters  for  his  expected  prey;  if  unsuccessful, 
he  comes  along  the  stream  just  above  the  surface,  and  occasionally  hovers  for 
an  instant  with  rapidly-moving  wings  over  the  spot  where  he  perceives  his 
gliding  quarry.  In  the  next  instant,  with  a  swift  spiral  sweep,  he  seizes  a  fish, 
which  he  at  once  swallows. 

The  Hornbills  (/?*«r«i)*are  large  birds  of  India  and  Africa,  remarkable 
for  their  enormous  toothed  beaks,  surmounted  by  a  crest  or  prominence 
almost  as  large  as  the  beak  itself.  They  live  upon  mice,  reptiles,  small  birds, 
and  dead  animals. 

ORDER  ScANsoRES.f 

In  all  birds  belonging  to  this  Order  the  outer  toe  can  be  directed 
backwards  like  the  thumb,  an  arrangement  that  enables  them 
more  firmly  to  grasp  the  boughs  of  trees,  and  which  some  genera 

*  /3ous,  bous,  an  ox  ;  tctpas,  keras,  a  horn  ;  because  their  beak  somewhat  resembles  the 
horn  of  an  ox.  t  Scando,  scansum,  to  climb. 


332 


BIRDS. 


employ  for  clinging  to  and  climbing  their  trunks.  The  climbers 
generally  make  their  nests  in  the  hollows  of  old  trees.  Their 
powers  of  flight  are  moderate.  Some  feed  on  insects,  some  on 
fruits,  according  to  the  structure  of  their  beak.  In  this  Order  are 
found  the  Woodpeckers,  the  Wrynecks,  the  Cuckoos,  the  Parrots, 
and  the  Toucans. 


o 

CQ 

a 


FIG.  362. — FOOT  OF  PARROT  AXD  OF  WOODPECKER. 


And  angular;  tongue  very") 
extensible  and  armed  with  >  Woodpeckers. 
spines  at  the  tip  .     .     .     .  j 


Having 
the  beak 


Straight 


Arched 


And  rounded;  tongue  very") 
extensible,    but    without  >  Wrynecks. 
spines     .......  ) 


Moderate  in  size  and  slightly 
arched    ......    • 


Large,  rounded  on  all  sides,") 
and  having  the  upper  man-  >  Parrots. 
dible  strongly  hooked  .     .  j 


\  Almost  as  long  as  the  body .     Toucans. 

The  Woodpeckers  (Picus)  are  distinguished  by  their  long,  straight, 
strong  beak,  which  is  angular,  adapted  for  piercing  the  bark  of  trees;  their 
remarkable  tongue  can  be  extended  to  a  great  distance  beyond  the  bill,  and 
is  armed  near  the  end  with  horny  barbs  directed  backwards.  Their  tail  is 
composed  of  ten  stiff  and  elastic  quills,  that  serve  them  as  a  support  when  they 
climb.  They  all  have  the  habit  of  tapping  and  raising  up  the  bark  of  trees, 
to  seize  the  insects  concealed  beneath.  Most  woodpeckers  are  marked  with 
red  either  on  the  head  or  body.  Their  cry  is  sharp  and  their  flight  heavy. 

The  Wrynecks  ( Yunx)  have  the  protractile  tongue  of  the  woodpecker, 
but  without  its  spines.  Their  straight  and  pointed  beak  is  nearly  round,  with- 
out any  well-marked  angles,  and  is  not  sufficiently  strong  to  penetrate  or  raise 
the  bark  of  trees.  Like  the  woodpeckers,  they  live  on  insects,  but  climb  much 


CUCKOO. 


333 


-  A 
FIG.   364. — WRYNECK. 


>eculiar  habit  of  bending  the 


FIG.  363.— GREAT  BLACK  WOODPECKER. 

less.      The  wryneck  derives  its  name  from 
neck  sideways,  so  that  the  head  . 

is  turned  towards  the  back,  with  ^ 

the  eyes  half  closed.  <J|| 

The  Cuckoos  (Cuculus)  have  ^Hl 

a  moderate  beak,  well  cleft  and 
slightly  arched ;  the  tail  is  long 
and  composed  of  ten  quills. 
They  are  birds  of  passage  and 
live  upon  insects.  The  female 
cuckoo  makes  no  nest  and  takes 
no  care  of  her  young;  she  de- 
posits her  eggs  'in  the  nests  of 
other  birds.  The  strange  nurses  =^: 
to  whom  the  cuckoo  confides  her 
young  become  not  only  good  - 
mothers  to  the  progeny  that  does 
not  belong  to  them,  but  neglect 
their  own  offspring;  nay,  im- 
probable as  it  may  appear,  the 
young  cuckoos  push  the  rival 
nestlings  out  of  the  nests,  of 
which  they  take  possession  for 

three  weeks  after  their  birth,  and  FlG.  ,6=?.— CI-CKOO. 

for  five  weeks  longer  their  adopted  mothers  supply  them  with  food. 


BIRDS. 


FIG.  366.  —KEEL-BEAKED  TOUCAN. 


FIG.  367. — HEAD  OF  MACAW. 


The  Toucans 

(Ramphastos}*  are  at 
once  distinguished  by 
their  enormous  beak, 
which  is  almost  as 
large  and  as  long  as 
their  body;  internally 
it  is  light  and  cellular, 
and  at  its  margin 
irregularly  toothed. 
Their  tongue  is  long, 
narrow,  and  furnished 
on  each  side  with 
barbs  like  a  feather. 
These  strangely-con- 
structed birds  inhabit 
the  tropical  parts  of 
America;  they  live  in 
flocks,  and  feed  on 
fruits  and  insects. 
They  seek  the  nests 
of  other  birds,  and 
devour  their  eggs 
and  recently  hatched 
young.  When  they 
obtain  their  prey, 
they  toss  it  into  the 
air,  and  catching  it 
as  it  falls,  swallow  it 
whole. 

The  Parrots  (Psit- 
tacus)  have  a  large, 
hard,  and  solid  beak, 
with  the  upper  man- 
dible arched  and 
strongly  hooked. 
They  climb  trees  by 
the  aid  both  of  their 
beak  and  feet ;  their 
tongue  is  fleshy  and 
round,  and  their  toes 
short  and  strong. 
They  readily  become 
familiar,  and  some 
species  can  be  taught 
to  imitate  the  human 
voice.  The  plumage 
of  parrots  varies  in 
colour:  it  is  generally 
remarkable  for  its 
clear  and  vivid  tints; 
frequently  green  pre- 


j,  ramphos,  a  beak. 


GALLING.  335 


dominates,  while  in  certain  species  red  is  the  prevailing  colour.  Many  of 
these  birds  possess  a  wonderful  degree  of  intelligence^;  they  learn  to  talk,  re- 
member tunes,  and  are  very  susceptible  of  education.  'They  convey  their  food 
to  the  beak  with  their  claws ;  they  all  eat  fruit,  but  feed  likewise  on  buds,  tender 
bark,  roots,  and  the  sweet  juices  of  plants. 

To  this  family  belong  the  Macaws,  the  Paroquets,  the  True  Parrots,  and 
the  Cockatoos. 

ORDER  GALLING.* 

The  Gallinaceous  birds  are  terrestrial.  They  have  a  short  or 
moderately  long  beak,  which  is  vaulted  above.  Their  body  is 
heavy  and  their  wings  generally  short.  They  all  live  upon  grain, 
and  are  furnished  with  a  very  strong  muscular  gizzard  ;  they  de- 
light in  seeking  their  food  upon  the  ground  and  in  scratching  in 
the  dust.  Most  of  our  poultry  belongs  to  the  Order;  their  flesh 
supplies  a  light  and  wholesome  meat,  and  their  feathers  are 
applied  to  various  purposes  both  ornamental  and  useful. 

This  Order  is  divided  into  sections — 

The  Gallinae,  properly  so  called,  having  the  front  toes  united 
at  their  base  by  a  short  membrane,  and  their  tail  composed  of 
fourteen  or  a  still  greater  number  of  quills ;  and 

The  Pigeons,  having  their  toes  entirely  separate,  and  the  tail 
formed  of  twelve  quills. 

SECTION    OF   GALLIX.E,    PROPERLY   SO   CALLED. 

The  Gallinae,  properly  so  called,  have  a  short  convex  beak, 
with  the  upper  mandible  arched  or  vaulted,  and  curved  from  its 
base  to  its  point.  Their  three  front  toes  are  united  by  a  short 
membrane;  the  posterior  toe  is  affixed  high  up.  The  principal 
genera  are  the  Turkeys,  the"  Peacocks,  the  Guinea-Fowl,  the 
Pheasants,  and  the  Grouse. 

The  Turkeys  (Meleagris)  have  the  head  and  the  upper  part  of  the  neck 
covered  by  a  soft  skin,  which  is  destitute  of  feathers.  Under  the  throat  there 
is  a  fleshy  appendage  which  hangs  from  the  neck,  and  another  of  a  conical 
form  from  the  forehead ;  these  in  the  male  become  turgid  during  excitement. 
A  bunch  of  stiff  hairs,  likewise,  is  appended  to  the  breast  of  the  male.  The 
tail-coverts  can  be  raised  so  as  to  form  a  circle,  and  the  males  have  feeble 
spurs.  Turkeys,  of  which  only  two  species  are  known,  are  originally  from 
America,  whence  the  Jesuit  missionaries  introduced  them  into  Europe.  The 
first  turkeys  appeared  in  France  in  1570,  and  were  served  at  the  wedding  of 
Charles  IX.  They  have  since  been  naturalized  in  all  climates  on  account  of 
the  excellence  of  their  flesh. 

*  Callus,  a  cock;  Gallina,  a  hen.      Barn-door  fowls  being  taken  as  the  type  of  the 

Order. 


336  BIRDS. 


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The  Peacocks  (Pavd)  have  the  head  covered  with  feathers  and  orna- 
mented with  a  crest,  the  legs  are  armed  behind  with  a  conical  spur ;  but  the 
most  remarkable  characteristic  of  these  birds  is,  that  in  the  male  the  upper 
tail-coverts  are  longer  than  the  quills,  and  may  be  elevated  when  he  spreads 
his  tail,  the  feathers  of  which  are  of  unequal  size,  and  terminated  by  numerous 


PEACOCKS. 


337 


brilliant  circles  of  metallic 
splendour.  The  female  is 
destitute  of  this  ornament, 
the  richness  and  beauty  of 
which  are  beyond  descrip- 
tion. 

The  Guinea -Fowls 
or  Pintadoes  (Nvmida) 
have  the  head  naked  and 
provided  with  fleshy  wat- 
tles on  the  lower  part  of 
the  cheeks ;  their  skull  is 
likewise  generally  sur- 
mounted by  a  callous  crest. 
Their  feet  are  without 
spurs,  and  their  tail  is 
short  and  pendent.  The 
Guinea  -  fowls,  as  their 
name  implies,  are  of  Afri- 
can origin:  they  live  in 
numerous  troops  under 
bushes  and  in  copses, 
where  they  find  berries 
and  small  snails,  on  which 
they  feed. 

The  Pheasants  (Pha- 
siamis)  have  the  cheeks 
around  the  eyes  covered 
by  a  red  skin,  or  by  very- 
short  feathers ;  their  tail 
is  long  and  narrow,  with 
the  feathers  arranged  in 
two  planes  that  overlap 

each  other,  the  middle  ones  being  considerably  the  longest.  They  are  all 
natives  of  Asia,  and  seem  to  increase  in  beauty  as  we  go  farther  east,  until  in 
China  we  find  the  beautiful  Gold  and  Silver  Pheasants  and  the  superb  Argus, 
represented  in  our  figure,  studded  with  dark  ringed  eye-spots  on  a  cinnamon 
ground,  and  almost  rivalling  the  peacocks  in  the  richness  of  their  costume.  The 
Pheasants  of  our  preserves  (P.  Colchicus)  are  said  to  have  been  imported  into 
Greece  by  the  adventurous  Argonauts  from  the  banks  of  the  river  Phasis, 
whence  the  origin  of  their  name. 

The  Barn-door  Fowl  (Callus)  is  furnished  with  a  fleshy  crest  or  comb 
upon  the  crown  of  the  head  and  wattles  on  the  throat.  The  quills  of  the  tail 
are  fourteen  in  number,  placed  back  to  back  on  two  planes,  and  the  tail- 
coverts,  greatly  lengthened,  extend  in  the  adult  male  with  a  graceful  arch 
over  the  quills. 

The  Curassows  (Cratf,  of  which  there  are  many  species  nearly  as  large 
as  a  turkey,  are  almost  invariably  of  a  deep  black  colour,  glossed  with  metal- 
lic reflections.  Some  of  them  are  adorned  with  a  crest  composed  of  short 
curled  feathers.  They  live  in  flocks  in  South  America,  where  they  perch  and 
build  their  nests  upon  the  loftiest  trees. 

The  Grouse  (Tetrao)  are  distinguishable  by  a  naked  and  generally  red 

22 


FIG.  3C8.— PEACOCK. 


BIRDS. 


FIG.  369.— HASTINGS'S  TRAPOGAN,  ARGUS  PHEASANT.  AND  CROWNED  PIGEON 
J;^ 


FIG.  370.— CRESTED  CURASSOW, 


PIGEONS. 


339 


stripe  that  occupies 
the  place  of  the  eye- 
brows. This  family 
comprises  the  Heath- 
cocks,  the  Partridges, 
the  Ptarmigans,  and 
the  Quails. 

The  Capercail- 
zie, or  Cock  of  the 

Wood  (Tctrao  nro- 
-allns],  is  almost  as 
large  as  a  turkey.  Al- 
though- formerly  com- 
mon in  the  northern 
parts  of  this  country, 
this  noble  bird  has  been 
nearly  exterminated  ; 
efforts  have,  however, 
been  recently  made  to 
restore,  if  possible,  the 
breed,  by  importing  a 
large  number  from  Nor- 
way, where  they  are  still 
numerous.  Some  spe- 
cies of  grouse,  which 
seem  to  belon  to  the 


FlG-  37i-—  C 


northern  regions  of  the  globe,  are  defended  amidst  the  snow.,  over  which  tliev  wander 
icir  feet  feathered  to  the  claws,  and  by  their  plumage  becoming  white  in 


winter. 


SECOND  SECTION   OF  GALLINACEOUS   BIRDS. 


The  second  sec- 
tion of  Gallinace- 
ous birds  includes 
theextensivetribe 
of  Pigeons,  some- 
times regarded 
by  naturalists  as 
forming  an  Order 
by  themselves. 

The  Pigeons  (Co- 
lumb<2},  like  the  pre- 
ceding, have  the  beak 
vaulted,  the  nostrils 
pierced  in  a  mem- 
branous space,  and 
covered  with  a  carti- 
laginous scale,  that 
causes  a  considerable 
prominence  at  the 
base  of  the  beak. 


FlG.    372. — WoOD-PlGEON. 


22—2 


340 


BIRDS. 


These  birds  fly  well ;  the  males  attach  themselves  strictly  to  a  single  female, 
with  whom  they  live,  roosting  upon  trees  or  in  the  clefts  of  rocks  ;  they  lay  few 
eggs,  but  at  intervals  frequently  repeated.  The  male  assists  the  female  in 
the  work  of  incubation.  They  feed  their  young  brood  with  grain  previously 
softened  in  their  own  craw. 

ORDER  CURSORES.* 

The  principal  characteristic  of  these  birds  consists  in  the  unde- 
veloped condition  of  their  wings,  which  are  quite  disproportioned 
to  the  size  of  the  body,  and  completely  incapable  of  flight.  In 

some  cases,  these  rudi- 
mentary wings  are  but 
imperfectly  furnished 
with  feathers,  in  others 
they  are  fully  plumed, 
but  even  then  seem  only 
to  be  used  after  the  man- 
ner of  sails,  to  catch  the 
wind  and  thus  assist  in 
running.  They  run  with 
_  extraordinary  swiftness, 
- v  and  hence  the  name  Cnr- 
i,  :  _,  sores  or  Runners  is  ap- 
plied to  them  with  great 
propriety.  The  living 
species  form  two  families, 
of  one  of  which,  the  Os- 
trich, and  of  the  other, 
the  Apteryx,  is  the  type. 

The  Ostriches  (Striithi- 
onidce)  are  remarkable  for  the 
great  size  and  strength  of 
their  legs :  the  shortness  of 
their  wings  is  such  that  they 
are  quite  unadapted  for  flight. 

The  True  Ostriches  (Struthio),  however,  still  have  their  wings  covered 
with  loose  and  floating  plumes  of  sufficient  length  to  afford  them  considerable 
assistance  in  running.  Two  species  only  are  known:  the  African  Ostrich 
(Struthio  camelus),  and  the  American  Ostrich  (Stmthio  Rhea). 

The  African  Ostrich  has  only  two  toes  upon  each  foot ;  and  the  outermost  of 
the  two,  which  is  but  half  the  length  of  the  inner  one,  is  without  a  claw.  These  birds 
are  very  numerous  in  the  sandy  deserts  of  Arabia  and  of  the  interior  of  Africa.  They 
attain  the  height  of  seven  or  eight  feet,  live  in  large  flocks,  and  lay  eggs  that  weigh 
nearly  three  pounds  apiece :  in  intertropical  regions  these  eggs  are  simply  buried  in 

*  Cursor,  a  runner,  from  Curro,  to  run. 


. 


FIG 


OSTRICH. 


BUS1ARDS. 


the  s&nd,  but  beyond  the 
tropics  the  female  sits  upon 
her  eggs,  and  defends  her 
progeny  courageously.  No 
animal  can  beat  the  ostrich 
in  running. 

The  American  or 
Rhea  Ostrich  is  only 
half  the  size  of  the  African 
bird,  and  has  three  toeb,  all 
furnished  with  claws.  The 
plumage  is  of  little  value. 

The    Cassowary 

(Casuarius)  has  wings  much 
shorter  than  those  of  the 
ostrich,  and  quite  useless  even 
in  running.  Their  feet  have 
three  toes,  all  provided  with 
r.ails ;  their  feathers  almost 
resemble  the  hairs  of  a  horse's 
mane.  But  two  species  are 
known,  one  having  its  head 
surmounted  by  abony  helmet, 
the  other  unprovided  with 
such  a  covering.  In  running 
they  can  outstrip  the  swiftest 
greyhound. 

The  Bustards  (Otis). 
This  fine  bird  is  almost 
extirpated,  though   it    is 
still  seen  in  wide  open  plains.   The  last  recorded  to  have  been  killed  in  Eng- 


FIG.  374. — GREAT  BUSTARD. 


375-— Ai'TERVX 


342  BIRDS. 


land  was  shot  near  the  Lizard,  in  Cornwall,  in  February,  1843.  The  male 
bustard  stands  nearly  four  feet  high. 

The  Apteryxes. — The  second  division  of  Cursorial  Birds  form  the  family 
of  Apteryx  (Apterygidce),  so  called  because  they  have  the  appearance  of  being 
entirely  wingless.  They  resemble  the  emeu  in  the  general  form  of  their  body 
and  in  the  nature  of  their  plumage,  but  are  at  once  distinguished  from  those 
ostrich-like  birds  by  the  shortness  of  their  legs,  and  the  presence  of  a  hind 
toe,  armed  with  a  strong  claw  on  each  foot.  A  further  distinction  is  afforded 
by  the  form  of  the  bill,  which  is  elongated,  nearly  cylindrical,  and  slightly 
curved  ;  the  nostrils  are  situated  quite  at  the  tip  of  the  upper  mandible,  and 
the  wings  are  so  rudimentary  as  to  be  completely  concealed  beneath  the  fea- 
thers of  the  body. 

Shaw's  Apteryx  (Aptery.r  Australis]  is  an  inhabitant  of  New  Zealand. 
It  stands  about  two  feet  high,  and  its  plumage  is  of  a  dark  brown  colour.  It 
runs  with  great  rapidity,  and  when  pursued  takes  refuge  in  the  holes  of  rocks 
or  amongst  the  roots  of  trees.  When  seized  it  defends  itself  vigorously  with 
its  powerful  feet.  It  is  active  during  the  night,  and  feeds  principally  upon 
earthworms,  which  it  captures  by  driving  its  long  bill  into  the  soil.  These 
birds  live  in  pairs,  and  construct  a  rough  nest  in  the  retreat  which  they  gene- 
rally frequent.  In  this  nest  the  female  lays  a  single  egg,  about  the  size  of 
that  of  a  goose.  Their  flesh  is  much  esteemed  by  the  New  Zealanders,  who 
make  cloaks  of  their  skins  and  feathers. 

ORDER  GRALLATORES.* 

These  birds  derive  their  name  from  their  habits  and  from  the 
peculiarities  of  their  structure.  They  are  characterized  by  the 
height  of  their  legs,  which  are  naked,  and  thus  adapted  for  wading 
to  a  certain  depth  into  the  water,  where  many  species  catch  their 
prey.  Those  genera  that  are  possessed  of  a  strong  beak  live  upon 
fishes  and  reptiles  ;  those  in  which  the  bill  is  long  and  feeble,  upon 
worms  and  insects  ;  a  very  small  number  satisfy  their  appetite  by 
devouring  grain  or  herbs,  and  these  only  such  as  live  at  a  distance 
from  water.  In  a  few  instances  the  toes  are  partially  webbed, 
and  in  some  the  hinder  toe  is  entirely  wanting — circumstances 
which  have  considerable  influence  in  causing  their  habits  to  be 
more  or  less  aquatic.  Their  wings  are  long,  and  they  generally 
fly  well.  During  flight  their  legs  are  stretched  out  behind,  while 
in  other  birds  they  are  generally  folded  beneath  the  body.  They 
are  separable  into  four  tribes,  namely,  the  Pressirostres,  the 
Cultrirostres,  the  Longirostres,  and  the  Macrodactyles. 

TRIBE  I.— PRESSIROSTRES. 

The  tribe  Pressirostres  f  comprehends  such  genera  as  have 
their  legs  long  and  their  hind  toe  too  short  to  touch  the  ground. 

*  Grallae,  stilts:  from  their  stilt-like  legs,     f  Pressus,  compressed;  rostrum,  the  beak. 


PLOVERS. 


343 


Their  beak  is  suf- 
ciently  strong  to 
pierce  the  earth 
in  search  of  the 
worms,  and  con- 
sequently the 
smaller  species 
maybe  seen  run- 
ning about  in 
meadows  and 
ne  \\iy- ploughed 
fields.  Others, 
possessed  of 
stronger  bills, 
likewise  eat 
grain  and  plants. 
In  this  tribe  are 
classed  FIG  3?6  _RlNGED  PLOVEK. 

The  Plovers  (Charadrias}.  These  birds  have  no  hinder  toe,  and  a  mode- 
rate beak,  which  is  compressed  and  slightly  enlarged  at  the  tip.  They  live 
together  in  numerous  flocks,  frequent  damp  meadows,  and  strike  the  earth 
with  their  feet,  in  order  to  disturb  the  worms  upon  which  they  live. 

We  may  also  men- 
tion the  Sand- 
pipers (Tringa)  and 
Oyster-catchers 
(Hceniatopus)  —  the 
latter  having  a  beak 
straight,  pointed, 
compressed  into  a 
wedge  shape,  and 
sufficiently  strong  to 
enable  them  to  open 
small  shell-fish,  upon 
which  they  feed. 
They  likewise,  how- 
ever, dig  in  the  earth 
in  search  of  worms. 
Most  of  the  little  birds 
of  this  tribe  make 
no  regular  nest,  but 
deposit  their  eggs,  four  in  number,  in  a  cavity  slightly  scratched 


FIG.  377.  -NEST  OF  THE  DUNLIX. 


344 


BIRDS. 


among  sand  and  pebbles,  which  they  so  much  resemble  in  size 
and  colour  that  they  are  not  easily  discovered  ;  or  like  the  sea- 
snipe,  they  construct  on  the  ground,  among  long  grass  and  hea- 
ther, an  apology  for  a  nest,  composed  of  a  little  moss  and  some 
dried  leaves  and  fibres.  In  this  the  female  contrives  to  place  her 
eggs  so  that  they  occupy  the  smallest  possible  space,  by  making 
them  all  meet  at  their  smaller  ends,  which  taper  much  more  than 
the  eggs  of  most  other  birds  (Fig.  377). 

TRIBE   II.— CULTRIROSTRES. 

The  Oultrirostres  *  are  known  by  their  large,  long,  and  strong 
beak,  which  is  generally  trenchant  and  sharp  pointed  :  in 


IMG.  378. — CROWNED  CRANE. 


FIG.  379. — HERON. 


The  Cranes  (Grits),  however,  the  bill  is  scarcely  longer  than  the  head.  The 
Common  Crane  (Grus  cinered)  is  a  very  beautiful  bird,  standing  upwards  of 
four  feet  in  height.  It  has  been  celebrated  from  the  remotest  antiquity  on 
account  of  its  periodical  migration,  which  carries  it  every  autumn  from  north 
to  south,  and  every  spring  in  the  opposite  direction:  on  these  occasions  cranes 
fly  in  numerous  flocks  and  observe  the  most  perfect  discipline.  These  birds 
will  eat  grain,  but  they  prefer  insects  and  worms,  which  they  obtain  abun- 
dantly in  the  marshy  countries  they  frequent.  The  ancients  frequently  make 
allusion  to  the  cranes,  because  their  high-road  during  their  migrations  lies 
through  Greece  and  Asia  Minor. 

*  Culter,  the  coulter  of  a  plough  ;  rostrum,  a  beak. 


SPOONBILLS. 


345 


The  Herons  (Arded)  are  more  carnivorous  in  their  habits,  and  are  pro- 
vided with  a  long,  sharp  beak,  cloven  to  beneath  the  eyes.  They  are  likewise 
remarkable  for  having  the  inner  edge  of  the  middle  claw  of  each  foot  horny 
and  toothed  like  a  comb.  The  herons  are  solitary  birds :  they  roost  or  perch 
themselves  by  the  side  of  streams,  where  they  destroy  much  fish. 

The  Storks  (Ciconid)  are  furnished  with  a  beak  of  still  more  formidable 
proportions,  and  their  feet  are  slightly  webbed  at  the  base.  They  have  the 

habit  of  striking  their  broad  mandibles 
sharply  together,  thus  producing  a  clap- 
ping sound,  the  only  noise  that  they 
make.  The  White  Stork  (Ciconia  alba) 
very  common  on  the  continent,  builds 
its  nest  upon  steeples,  towers,  and  other 
lofty  objects:  frequently  upon  a  cart- 
wheel purposely  placed  as  a  scaffold 

for  its  accommodation.  These  birds  are  not  only  tolerated,  but  they  are  held 
in  special  regard,  on  account  of  the  services  that  they  render  in  destroying 
reptiles  and  all  sorts  of  vermin,  as  well  as  offal,  which  they  greedily  devour. 

The  Spoonbills  (Plataled)  resemble  the  storks  in  everything  but  the  struc- 
ture of  their  beak,  which  is  very  peculiar  :  it  is  long,  broad,  and  flattened  out 
near  its  extremity  into  a  spatula-like  plate,  so  feeble  as  no  longer  to  be  fit  for 
anything  but  dabbling  in  the  mud  in  search  of  little  fishes  or  aquatic  worms 
and  insects.  ^ 

TRIBE   III.— LONGIROSTRES. 

The  third  tribe,  Longi- 
rostres,*  composed  of 
Wading  Birds,  compre- 
hends numerous  genera  that 
habitually  frequent  the 
banks  of  rivers.  All  the 
genera  resemble  each  other 
very  much  in  their  form  and 
general  habits,  and  fre- 
quently even  in  their  co- 
lours, so  that  it  is  difficult 
to  draw  any  well-marked 
distinctions  between  them. 
They  are,  however,  empha- 
tically characterized  by 
their  beak,  which  is  long, 
slender,  and  feeble,  so  that 
it  is  principally  used  for 
probing  the  soft  earth  in 
search  of  the  grubs  and 
worms  upon  which  they  feed. 


FIG.  381. — IBIS. 


To  this  tribe  belongs 


*  Longiis,  long ;  rostrum,  a  beak. 


346 


BIRDS. 


The  Ibis  (Ibis),  distinguished  by  the  shape  of  its  long  and  slender  bill, 
which  is  thick  and  square  at  the  base,  but  gradually  tapering  towards  its  ex- 
tremity, and  bent  downwards  like  a  bow ;  the  head,  and  sometimes  the  neck, 
is  partially  denuded  of  feathers ;  the  outer  toes  are  webbed  at  their  base,  and 
the  hinder  toe  sufficiently  long  to  reach  the  ground.  The  most  celebrated 
species  is  the  Sacred  Ibis  of  Egypt  (Ibis  religiosd).  By  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians this  bird  was  educated  in  their  temples,  and  embalmed  after  its  death. 
It  seems  to  have  been  an  object  of  religious  worship  on  account  of  its  habit  of 
devouring  serpents,  or,  perhaps,  because  its  appearance  was  generally  simul- 
taneous with  the  jDverflow  of  the  Nile,  to  which  that  country  owes  so  much  of 
its  fertility. 

The  Scarlet  Ibis,  met  with  in  the  tropical  regions  of  America,  is  a  beautiful 
bird  :  its  body  is  of  a  brilliant  scarlet,  with  the  wing-feathers  of  a  deep  black.  It  may 
be  seen  in  flocks  in  marshy  places  near  the  mouths  of  rivers,  and  is  easily  tamed. 


FIG.  382.— COMMON  CURLEW. 

The  Curlews  (Numenius)  are  provided  with  beaks  arched  like  that  of  the 
ibis,  tapering,  slender,  and  round  throughout  its  entire  length ;  the  end  of  the 
upper  mandible  projects  beyond  the  lower,  and  the  toes  are  webbed  near  their 
bases.  The  Common  Curlew  of  our  coasts  has  been  named  from  its  peculiar 
cry ;  its  flesh  is  sometimes  eaten,  but  it  makes  a  very  indifferent  apology  for 
game. 

The  family  of  Snipes  (Scolopacida)  have  the  bill  straight,  and  the  nostrils 
prolonged  by  grooves  until  very  near  the  tip,  which  is  slightly  enlarged  and 
projects  a  little  beyond  the  lower  mandible.  The  extremity  of  the  bill  in 


WOODCOCK'. 


347 


FIG.  384.  —WOODCOCK. 


these  birds  is  soft  and  very 
sensitive.  Their  feet  have 
no  traces  of  a  web ;  all  of 
them  have  their  head  more 
or  less  flattened,  and  their 
great  eyes  placed  very  far 
back,  giving  them  the  ap- 
pearance of  being  stupid, 
and  indeed  their  habits 
quite  agree  in  this  respect 
with  their  physiognomy. 

The  Woodcock   (Scolo- 
fax  rusticola)  and  the  Com- 

mon  Snipe  (S.  Gallmago) 

are  well-known  examples  of 
this  extensive  family,  as  are  the 
Turnstones  (Strepsclas). 

Many  of  these  birds  migrate 
at  certain  seasons.  The  period 
of  their  migrations  is  fixed  by 
Nature  for  each  species,  and  it 
is  remarked  that  they  follow 
the  same  route  every  year;  hence 
in  certain  districts  the  fowlers 
orbirdcatchers  count  upon  their 
arrival  as  upon  rent  that  falls 
due  on  a  certain  day,  and  cal- 
culate in  advance  the  period  of 
their  passage.  Armed  with 
their  nets  and  all  the  apparatus 
of  the  chase,  they  station  them- 
selves in  the  gorges  and  in  the 
valleys  througfnvhich  the  flocks 
are  to  pass,  and  await  their 
coming  just  as  they  would  the 
arrival  of  a  railway  train. 

TRIBE   IV. — MACRO- 
DACTYLES. 

The  tribe  of  Macro 
dactyles*  have  their 
toes  very  much  length- 
ened, so  as  to  be  adapt- 
ed for  walking  over  the 
floating  vegetation  of 
marshes,  or  even  for 
swimming,  should  their 
possessors  happen  to 
fall  from  their  unstable 


,  macros,  long;  SO.KTV\O<;,  dactylos,  a  toe. 


348 


BIRDS. 


footing  into  the  water ;  nevertheless,  their  feet  are  not  webbed. 
Their  beak  is  more  or  less  compressed  at  the  sides,  and  is  never 
so  slender  or  so  long  as  in  the  preceding  family.  The  body  of 
these  birds  is  also  remarkably  flattened,  their  wings  are  of  mode- 
rate size  or  short,  and  their  flight  feeble  ;  in  all  of  them  the  hind 
toe  is  very  long.  To  this  family  belong 

The  Jacanas  (Parra),  distinguishable  from  all  other  wading  birds  by 
having  their  four  toes  mueh  elongated  and  separate  quite  to  their  roots; 
the  nails  upon  all  their  toes  are  likewise  of  extraordinary  length,  and  very 
sharp,  from  which  circumstance  they  have  obtained  the  common  name  of 
"  Surgeons ;"  a  cognomen,  however,  which  they  rather  seem  to  deserve  on 
account  of  the  structure  of  their  wings,  which  are  armed  with  sharp  spines. 
All  these  birds  are  extremely  noisy  and  quarrelsome ;  they  abound  among 
the  marshes  of  tropical  countries,  upon  the  floating  weeds  of  which  they  walk 
by  means  of  their  wide-spreading  toes. 

The  Rails  (Rallus)  likewise  belong  to  this  group :  some  of  them,  as  the 
Common  Water-Rail  (Rallus  aquaticus],  frequent  our  brooks  and  large  ponds, 


FIG.  385. — LAND-RAIL. 


where  they  manage  to  swim  very  well,  and  also  to  run  lightly  over  the  leaves 
that  float  upon  the  surface ;  they  feed  upon  little  fresh- water  shrimps ;  their 
flesh  smells  of  the  marsh. 

The  Land-Bail  (Rallus  Crex],  on  the  contrary,  lives  and  hides  itself  in  the  fields, 
running  along  amongst  the  grass  with  considerable  swiftness;  his  Latin  name,  Crex,  is 
expressive  of  his  cry.  He  is  sometimes  called  on  the  continent  the  ''King  of  the 
Quails,"  because  he  arrives  and  departs  at  the  same  time  as  those  birds,  and  lives 
nearly  in  the  same  localities,  so  that  the  vulgar  give  him  credit  for  guiding  all  thek 
movements.  The  land-rail  lives  upon  grain  as  well  as  upon  insects  and  worms. 


COOTS.  349 


The  Coots  (Fulicd],  in  the  shape  of  their  beak  resemble  the  land-rail,  from 
which  they  are  distinguished  by  a  broad  horny  prolongation  from  the  beak 
that  covers  their  forehead,  which  is  long  and  edged  upon  each  side  by  a  nar- 
row border.  Our  common  species,  the  Water- Hen,  is  very  widely  distributed. 


FIG.  386. — COMMON  C 

Included  in  this  extensive  Order  we  find 

The  Flamingoes  (Phamicoptcrns]*  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  and 
most  isolated  genera  in  the  entire  series  of  the  feathered  creation.  Their  legs 
are  excessively  elongated,  so  as  to  exceed  in  their  length  those  of  many  wading 
birds.  Their  three  front  toes  are  webbed  as  far  as  their  extremities,  while  the 
hinder  toe  is  extremely  short ;  their  neck  is  as  long  and  as  slender  as  their 
legs,  and  their  small  head  supports  a  beak  of  very  peculiar  construction,  being 
so  bent  that  the  upper  mandible  is  nearest  the  ground  when  the  animal  col- 
lects its  food  from  the  marshy  soil.  They  feed  upon  shelled  Mollusks,  insects, 
and  eggs  of  fishes,  which  they  procure  by  means  of  their  long  neck  and  their 
strangely-shaped  beak.  They  construct  their  nest  upon  a  raised  platform 
that  they  build  in  the  marshes,  and  sit  a-straddle  upon  it  during  incubation, 
their  long  legs  preventing  them  from  taking  any  other  position.  Flamingoes 
are  common  both  in  the  Old  and  New  World,  but  they  are  seldom  found  farther 
north  than  the  fortieth  degree  of  latitude ;  sometimes,  however,  they  are  to 
be  seen  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine. 

ORDER  PALMIPEDES,  f 
The  last  and  lowest  Order  of  birds  comprehends  those  whose 

*  0oiVt/c60j,  phoinikeos,  purple ;   irrepov,  pteron,  a  wing. 
t  Palma,  the  palm  ;  pes,  the  foot:  palm-footed. 


350 


BIRDS. 


feet  are  specially  made 
for  swimming  :  they  are 
placed  far  back  upon  the 
body,  the  legs  are  short 
and  compressed,  and  the 
toes  are  connected  toge- 
ther by  a  web.  Their 
plumage  is  thick  and 
shining,  impregnated 
with  oil,  and  closely 
packed  with  soft  down, 
so  as  to  preserve  them  from  all  contact  with  the  water  in  which 
they  live.  They  are  also  the  only  birds  the  length  of  whose  neck 
sometimes  much  surpasses  that  of  their  legs,  thus  enabling  them, 
while  swimming  on  the  surface,  to  obtain  their  food  at  the  bottom. 
The  birds  belonging  to  this  Order  may  be  divided  into  four 
sections,  as  in  the  following  table  : 

'Having  excessively  short  wings,  and  the  legs  placed"^ 
so  far  back  that  they  are  obliged  when  on  land  to  \  Brachypteres. 
preserve  almost  a  vertical  position.    They  fly  little  f         Divers, 
or  not  at  all  . 


FIG.  387. — FOOT  OK  PELICAN. 


Having  the  wings  of 
ordinary  length,  or 
even  very  long,  and 
the  feet  so  placed  as 
to  enable  the  bird  to 
walk  when  in  a  hori- 
zontal position  .  . 


Beak 

horny 


The  thumb  free  or  ") 
wanting,     wings  >  Longipeillies. 
excessively  long .  ; 

The  thumb  united  "\ 
to  the  other  toes  / 
by  a  common 
membrane,  wings 
long 


The  beak  covered  by  a  soft 
skin,  and  the  edges  fur- 
nished with  transverse 
ridges  or  very  fine  tooth- 
like  points 


Lamellirostres. 


TRIBE    I. — BRACHYPTERES. 


The  Brachypteres  *  exhibit  considerable  relationship  with  the 
water-hens.  In  these  birds  the  legs  are  situated  farther  back  than 
in  any  others,  so  that  they  walk  with  difficulty,  and  are  obliged 
to  stand  almost  in  an  upright  position.  They  swim  about  on  the 


brachys,  short ;  irrepliv,  pteron,  a  wing. 


DIVERS.  351 


surface  of  the  water,  and  many  of  them  cannot  fly  at  all  on  account 
of  the  shortness  of  their  wings  ;  they  may,  therefore,  be  regarded 
as  exclusively  water-birds ;  their  plumage  is  consequently  exceed- 
ingly thick  and  smooth,  so  as  to  have  almost  a  silvery  appearance. 
They  dive  with  great  ease,  using  their  wings  almost  in  the  same 
manner  as  fins.  To  this  tribe  belong 

The  Divers  (Colytnbida\  distinguishable  by  their  smooth,  straight,  com- 
pressed, and  pointed  beak.  They  are,  however,  divisible  according  to  the 
structure  of  their  feet  into 

The  Grebes  (Podiceps}*  which,  instead  of  truly  webbed  feet,  only  have 
their  toes  expanded  by  the  addition  of  folds  of  skin  at  their  sides  and  base. 
The  semi-metallic  brilliancy  of  their  plumage  often  causes  the  skins  of  these 
birds  to  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  furs.  They  live  upon  the  margins  of  lakes 
and  ponds,  and  make  their  nests  among  the  reeds  :  under  some  circumstances 
they  are  said  to  gather  their  young  under  their  wings. 


FIG.   388.- NORTHERN   DIVEK. 

The  Divers,  properly  so  called  (Colymbus}^  possess  the  general  form  of 
grebes,  but  have  their  feet  completely  webbed,  that  is  to  say,  their  toes  are 
united  quite  to  their  extremities,  where  they  terminate  in  strong  pointed  nails. 
These  are  all  Northern  birds,  and  only  visit  us  in  the  winter  season. 

The  Great  Northern  Diver  ( Colymbns  glaciulis}  is  frequently  seen  upon  our 
northern  coasts :  they  dive  with  the  utmost  facility,  and  live  upon  fishes  and  crabs  that 
they  catch  under  water. 

*  Podex,  the  rump;  pes,  afoot:  so  called  from  the  legs  being  placed  so  far  back, 
•f  noXvfjLpijTifis,  colymbetes,  a  dii'cr. 


352 


BIRDS. 


The  Penguins  (Alcidce)  are  known  by  the  beak  being  much  compressed 
and  elevated  vertically,  presenting  a  sharp  ridge  on  its  upper  margin,  and 
generally  grooved  transversely.  The  feet  are  completely  webbed  and  have 
no  posterior  toe.  This  family  is  divided  into  the  Puffins  and  the  Penguins. 


•_         WMIMPFR 

FIG.  389.— PUFFIN. 


The  Puffins  (Fratercula)  have  the  beak  shorter  than  the  head,  and  as 
wide  at  the  base  as  it  is  long,  a  structure  which  gives  these  birds  a  very  re- 
markable appearance:  the  root  of  the  beak  is  bedded  in  a  fold  of  skin,  while 
the  nostrils  are  only  narrow  slits  placed  near  its  margin.  Their  little  wings 
can  scarcely  sustain  them  in  the  air  for  an  instant.  They  live  upon  the  sea 
and  make  their  nest  among  the  rocks.  Puffins  are  found  in  great  numbers 
on  our  northern  shores. 

The  Penguins,  properly  so  called  (Alca),  have  the  bill  elongated  like  the 
blade  of  a  knife,  and  covered  with  feathers  as  far  as  the  nostrils.  Their  wings 
are  so  decidedly  too  small  to  sustain  their  weight  that  they  never  fly  at  all. 

The  manner  in  which  they  feed  their  young  is  curious  and  rather  amusing.  The  old 
bird  gets  on  a  little  eminence,  and  makes  a  great  noise,  between  quacking  and  braying, 
holding  its  head  up  in  the  air,  as  if  it  were  haranguing  the  penguinary,  while  the  young 
one  stands  close  to  it,  but  a  little  lower.  The  old  bird  having  continued  its  clatter  for 
about  a  minute,  puts  its  head  down,  and  opens  its  mouth  widely,  into  which  the  young 
one  thrusts  its  head  and  appears  to  suck  from  the  throat  of  its  mother  for  a  minute  or 
two,  after  which  the  clatter  is  repeated,  and  the  young  feed  again :  this  continues  for 
about  ten  minutes. — DARWIN. 

The  Common  Penguins  (Alca  torda  and  pica)  are  about  the  size  of  ducks, 
while  the  Great  Penguin  (Alca  impennis}  equals  that  of  a  goose.*  The  latter 
lays  but  a  single  egg,  which  is  spotted  with  purple. 

*  Perhaps  we  ought  rather  to  say  equalled  that  of  a  goose,  for  although  a  few  years 


PENGUINS. 


353 


FIG.  390.— PENGUINS. 

The  King1  PengTlins  (Aptenodytes}  *  are  even  less  capable  of  flight  than  the  pre- 
ceding. Their  little  wings  are  covered  with  apologies  for  feathers,  that  rather  resem- 
ble scales,  and  their  feet,  which  are  placed  farther  back  than  those  of  any  other  bird, 
support  their  weight  upon  the  whole  length  of  the  tarsus,  which  is  flattened  out  like 
the  sole  of  the  foot  of  a  quadruped.  Their  feet,  moreover,  have  the  three  front  toes 
completely  webbed,  and  the  hinder  toe  directed  inwards.  These  birds  are  only  met  with 
in  the  Antarctic  seas,  and  seldom  come  on  shore  except  to  build  their  nests. 

TRIBE  II. — LONGIPENNES. 

The  tribe  Longipennes  f  comprehends  numerous  birds  always 
met  with  on  the  wide  ocean,  and  distributed  everywhere,  so  that 
they  are  encountered  by  navigators  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 
They  are  to  be  recognized  by  having  their  hind  toe  free  or  else 
wanting;  by  their  very  long  wings  ;  and  by  their  beak,  which  is 
without  denticulations,  hooked  at  the  end  in  some  species,  and 
simply  pointed  in  others. 

ago  Uiese  birds  were  sufficiently  common,  such  has  been  the  relentless  warfare  carried 
on  against  them  that  the  species  is  believed  by  ornithologists  to  be  now  totally  extinct. 
*  airTfy,  apten,  unwinged ;  dvnjs,  dytes,  a  diver :  ivingless  divers. 
t  Longus,  long;  penna,  a  uint>. 

23 


354  BIRDS. 


The  Petrels  (Procellarid)  have  their  beaks  hooked  at  the  extremity,  which 
seems  to  be  made  of  a  piece  distinct  from  the  rest.  The  nostrils  are  united 
to  form  a  tube,  laid  along  the  upper  mandible.  Their  feet  present,  instead  of 
the  hinder  toe,  a  simple  claw  inserted  into  the  heel.  Of  all  the  swimming 
birds  these  are  most  constantly  met  with  at  great  distances  from  land,  so  that 
when  a  tempest  approaches,  they  are  often  obliged  to  take  refuge  upon  shoals 
or  on  board  of  vessels.  They  make  their  nests  in  the  holes  of  rocks,  and  are 
specially  abundant  in  the  Antarctic  regions. 


FIG.  391.— STORMY  PETREL. 

The  Albatrosses  (Diomeded]  are  the  largest  of  all  water-birds.  The  beak 
of  the  albatross  is  large,  strong,  and  cutting,  seemingly  formed  of  several 
distinct  pieces,  and  terminated  by  a  hook  that  has  the  appearance  of  being 
fixed  on  to  the  end.  The  nostrils  resemble  two  short  tubes  laid  along  the 
sides  of  the  beak.  Their  feet  have  no  hinder  toe,  and  are  even  destitute  of 
the  little  claw  that  we  have  noticed  in  the  petrels.  They  inhabit  all  the  seas 
of  the  southern  hemisphere,  and  live  on  fishes,  Mollusks,  and  other  marine 
animals.  The  species  most  commonly  known  (Diomcdea  exulans)  is  often 
called  by  sailors  the  Cape  Sheep,  partly  on  account  of  its  size,  and  partly  from 
its  colour ;  it  also  receives  the  name  of  Man-of-war  bird.  It  is  a  great  enemy 
to  flying-fishes.  These  magnificient  birds  come  on  shore  to  rear  their  young : 
they  construct  a  nest  of  raised  earth  on  which  they  lay  their  eggs,  which 
are  numerous  and  good  to  eat.  The  voice  of  the  albatross  is  said  to  be  as 
loud  as  that  of  an  ass. 

The  Sea-Gulls  (Larus)  have  the  beak  compressed,  elongated,  and  pointed, 
the  upper  being  hooked  near  its  extremity.  Their  nostrils,  situated  towards 
the  middle  of  the  upper  mandible,  are  narrow  slits.  These  are  all  cowardly 
but  voracious  birds,  generally  seen  flying  about  near  the  shore,  feeding  upon 
fish  or  any  dead  carcases  they  may  happen  to  meet  with.  They  make  iheir 
nests  in  the  sand  or  in  the  clefts  of  rocks,  and  lay  but  few  eggs.  Sometimes 
they  are  found  at  a  considerable  distance  inland,  which  is  regarded  as  a  sign 
of  bad  weather. 


TERNS. 


355 


FIG.  392.— HEKKING 

The  Terns  or  Sea-Swallows  (Sterna). 
from  their  extreme- 
ly long  and  pointed 
wings,  their  forked 
tail  and  short  feet 
giving  them  an  ap- 
pearance and  mode 
of  flight  very  much 
resembling  that  of 
the  swallows.  Their 
beak  is  pointed, 
compressed,  and 
straight,  and  the 
membranes  that 
web  their  toes  deep- 
ly notched,  so  that 
they  swim  but  little, 
but  they  fly  over  the 
sea  with  astonish- 
ing rapidity,  utter- 
ing loud  cries  and 
cleverly  picking  up 
from  the  surface  of 
the  water  the  Mol- 
lusks  and  little  fish 


These  birds  derive  their 


name 

• 


FIG.  393.— COMMON  TERN. 


23 — 2 


356  BIRDS. 

upon  which  they  feed ;  they  may  sometimes  be  seen  skimming  over  lakes  and 
rivers  in  the  interior  of  the  country. 

The  Skimmers  (Rynchops)  resemble  the  sea-swallows  in  the  smallness 
of  their  feet,  their  long  wings,  and  their  forked  tail,  but  are  distinguished  from 
all  other  birds  by  the  extraordinary  structure  of  their  beak— the  upper  man- 
dible is  much  shorter  than  the  lower,  and  both  so  flattened  sideways  that  they 
resemble  scissor  blades,  the  edges  of  which  meet  without  fitting  into  each  other. 
These  birds,  therefore,  only  obtain  their  food  by  skimming  the  surface  of  the 
water  as  they  fly,  by  means  of  their  projecting  lower  jaw. 


IMG.  394.— CORMORANT. 


TRIBE  III. — TOTIPALMAT/E. 

The  birds  belonging  to  the  tribe  Totipalmatae  *  are  recog- 
nizable from  the  circumstance  that  all  the  four  toes,  including  the 
hind  one,  are  webbed  together  by  a  membrane,  thus  constituting 
them  the  most  perfectly  constructed  for  swimming  of  the  whole 
race  ;  and  yet,  notwithstanding  this,  they  are  the  only  Palmipedes 
that  perch  on  trees.  Their  legs  are  short,  and  they  are  all  excel- 
lent swimmers.  To  this  tribe  belong 

The  Pelicans  (PeKcamda\  comprehending  those  genera  which  have  a 
space  at  the  base  of  their  beak  denuded  of  feathers.  Their  nostrils  are  slits, 

*  Totus,  entire;  palma,  the  sole  of  the  foot:  so  called  because  their  toes  are  united 
together  by  one  continuous  web. 


PELICANS. 


357 


the  openings  of  which  are  scarcely  perceptible;   the  skin  of  their  throat  is 
more  or  less  extensible,  and  their  tongue  is  very  small. 

The  Pelicans,  properly  so  called  (Pclicanus),  are  provided  with  a  beak  remarkable 
for  its  great  length;  it  is  flattened  horizontally,  of  great  breadth,  and  terminated  by  a  large 
hook.  The  lower  mandible  is  very  remarkable :  it  consists  of  two  long  flexible  branches 
that  sustain  a  wide  muscular  bag.  The  Common  Pelican  (Pdicanus  Onocrotalns)  is 
about  the  size  of  a  swan;  its  plumage  white,  with  a  roseate  tint,  and  the  hook  at  the 
end  of  its  beak  blood-red :  it  is  able  to  carry  provisions  and  water  in  the  bag  beneath 
its  throat. 


.   395.—  THE  GANXEP 


The  Cormorants  (Phalacrocora.r}*  have  the  beak  elongated  and  com- 
pressed, and  the  end  of  the  upper  mandible  hooked  ;  the  claw  of  the  middle  toe 
is  toothed  like  a  saw.  These  birds  are  proverbially  voracious  and  destructive 
to  fish.  They  make  their  nests  in  the  clefts  of  rocks  and  amongst  trees,  where 
they  lay  three  or  four  eggs. 

The  'Frigate  Birds  (Pdicanus  aguilas]  differ  from  the  cormorants  in 
having  a  forked  tail,  and  both  mandibles  hooked  at  the  end.  Their  flight  is 
so  powerful  that  they  are  everywhere  to  be  seen  in  tropical  seas  at  immense 
distances  from  land,  sweeping  down  upon  flying-fishes,  or  pursuing  other  birds, 
which  they  compel  to  disgorge  their  prey.  The  spread  of  their  wings  is 
sometimes  ten  feet  from  tip  to  tip. 

The  Gannets  (Sulcf)  and  the  Tropic  Birds  (Phaeton}  are  of  similar 
structure  and  habits,  but  of  smaller  dimensions. 


*  <£a\a\7>6s,  phalacros,  bald-headed ' ; 


",  corax,  a  craiv :  bald-headed  c 


35S 


BIRDS. 


TRIBE   IV. — LAMELLIROSTRES. 

In  the  tribe  Lamellirostres  *  the  beak  is  thick  and  covered 
with  a  soft  skin  instead  of  true  horn  ;  its  edges  are  furnished  with 
ridges  resembling  little  teeth,  the  tongue  is  broad  and  fleshy  and 
toothed  at  the  margin.  The  wings  are  of  moderate  length.  These 
birds  are  inhabitants  of  fresh  water  rather  than  of  the  sea. 

The  Ducks  (Anatidce).  This  extensive  genus  comprises  all  birds  having 
their  beak  large,  broad,  and  furnished  at  the  edges  with  the  prominent  ridges 
above  mentioned,  which  allow  the  water  to  escape  when  the  bird  has  seized 
its  food.  The  Swans  (Cygnns),  the  Geese  (Anser),  and  the  true  Ducks 
(Anas),  are  all  included  uiulor  the  same  general  appellation. 


Fu;.  3;6.  — THE  WILD  DUCK. 

Few  circumstances  in  the  history  of  these  aquatic  races  are  more  wonderful 
than  their  periodical  migrations.  The  Wild  Geese,  guided  by  an  unseen  power, 
seek  in  spring  the  wild  regions  of  the  North,  in  companies  disposed  in  regular 
phalanx.  During  the  whole  journey  the  most  perfect  order  prevails.  The 
conducting  of  the  troop  is  confided  to  a  chief,  placed  at  the  head  of  two  files, 
more  or  less  diverging,  but  always  meeting  at  a  point.  The  chief,  placed  at 
the  apex  of  this  moving  angle,  opposes  the  first  resistance  to  the  air:  he  clears 
the  way,  and  the  whole  band  follows  him,  observing  the  strictest  discipline. 
As  the  duties  of  the  leader  are  very  arduous,  and  as  he  cannot  support  them 
during  the  whole  voyage,  he  may  be  perceived,  when  overcome  with  fatigue, 

*  Lamella,  a  flat  plate;  rostrum,  a  beak. 


MAMMALS.  359 


to  yield  his  post  to  his  next  neighbour,  and  fall  again  into  the  ranks  at  the 
extremity  of  one  or  other  of  the  files.  Some  species  fly  alone,  and  singly 
undertake  their  long  and  trackless  voyage,  solitary,  but  not  unguided  by  the 
Hand  that  points  their  way. 


FIG.  397. —BEAK  OF  DUCK 


CHAPTER   XXVII. 

FOURTH  CLASS  OF  VERTEBRATE  ANIMALS. 
MAMMALS.* 

THE  essential  character  whereby  this  class  of  animals  is  dis- 
tinguished from  all  others  is  that  the  creatures  composing 
it  bring  forth  living  young,  which  they  suckle,  and  thus  nourish 
for  a  time  with  their  milk.  In  birds,  the  duties  and  the  pleasures 
inseparable  from  the  necessity  of  incubating  their  eggs,  and  of 
providing  nutriment  for  their  callow  brood,  are  indeed  manifested 
to  an  extent  unparalleled  in  the  preceding  Orders  of  Vertebrate 
animals  ;  but  it  is  to  the  Mammals  alone,  the  most  sagacious  and 
intelligent  of  all  the  inhabitants  of  this  world,  that  the  Creator 
has  permitted  the  full  endearment  of  paternal  and  maternal  love, 
has  thrown  the  offspring,  absolutely  helpless,  to  be  dependent  on 
a  mother's  care  and  solicitude,  and  thus  confers  upon  the  parent 
emotions  that  a  mother  only  knows,  the  dearest,  purest  bestowed 
upon  animal  creation. 

Besides  the  leading  feature  of  their  economy,  namely,  the  pro- 
duction of  milk  for  the  nourishment  of  their  young,  the  Mammals 

*  From  "mamma,"  the  breast :  because  they  suckle  their  young. 


360  MAMMALS. 


are  distinguished  by  the  following  peculiarities  :  They  all  breathe 
air  by  means  of  lungs,  suspended  freely  in  a  cavity,  which  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  abdomen  by  a  muscular  partition  called  the  dia- 
phragm, the  movements  of  which,  by  enlarging  the  chest,  are  the 
principal  cause  of  the  inspiration  of  air.  The  heart  is  double — 
that  is,  consists  of  two  ventricles  for  the  propulsion  of  blood 
through  the  arteries,  and  two  auricles  for  its  reception  from  the 
veins.  The  mouth  is  closed  by  fleshy  lips,  and  the  skin,  with  .but 
few  exceptions,  is  covered  with  hair.  The  teeth  in  Mammals  arc 
organs  of  great  importance  to  the  zoologist.  They  are  generally 
placed  in  single  series,  and  vary  much  in  their  form,  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  food,  as  well  as  according  to  their  position  in 
the  mouth.  In  man,  there  are  in  each  half  of  each  jaw  two  front 
teeth,  having  the  name  of  incisors  or  cutting-teeth  ;  one,  more 
pointed,  called  the  canine  or  dog-tooth,  or  sometimes  the  eye- 
tooth  ;  two  somewhat  flattened  at  the  top,  with  single  fangs,  called 
false  molars ;  and  three,  situated  behind  all  the  rest,  called  true 
molars  or  grinders.  For  simplicity,  naturalists  have  invented  the 
following  tabular  method  of  expressing  the  number  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  teeth,  which  is  called  the  dental  formula  : 

meaning — incisors,  two  on  each  side  in  the  upper  and  two  on  each 
side  in  the  lower  jaw  ;  canines,  one  on  each  side  in  the  upper  and 
one  on  each  side  in  the  lower  jaw  ;  false  molars,  two  on  each  side 
in  both  upper  and  lower  jaws  ;  molars,  three  on  each  side  in  both 
jaws — making  in  all  thirty- two  teeth. 

In  those  races  which  feed  exclusively  on  flesh,  the  molar  teeth 
partake  of  a  cutting  character,  while  in  those  that  subsist  on  grain 
and  herbage  the  molar  or  grinding  structure  prevails.  Sometimes 
the  incisors  are  curiously  developed :  in  the  squirrels,  rats,  and 
other  similar  animals,  they  project  forwards,  and  are  continually 
growing ;  in  the  elephant  they  stand  out  in  the  form  of  huge 
curved  tusks ;  and  in  the  narwhal  one  is  commonly  suppressed, 
while  the  other  grows  into  a  long,  spirally-twisted  straight  tusk, 
that  projects  like  a  horn  in  front  of  its  head.  The  whale  has  no 
teeth,  but  a  series  of  horny  plates,  parallel  to  each  other,  depends 
from  the  upper  jaw,  and  constitutes  the  valuable  substance  called 
"  whalebone."  In  the  ant-eaters,  and  some  others  of  the  Eden- 
tata, there  are  no  teeth  at  all,  while  the  armadillo  has  ninety-six, 
and  some  of  the  dolphins  have  a  hundred  and  fifty. 


MAMMALS.  361 


All  the  parts  of  animal  structure  are  in  beautiful  harmony  with 
each  other  and  with  the  habits  and  instincts  of  the  species.  The 
short  and  powerful  jaw  in  the  cats  (Fdidce),  the  lacerating  teeth, 
the  muscular  fore  limbs,  their  freedom  of  motion,  the  sharp  curved 
talons,  the  flexibility  of  the  spine,  and  the  straight  and  simple 
digestive  canal,  equally  indicate  activity  and  testify  to  the  posses- 
sion of  sanguinary  and  carnivorous  propensities.  In  the  camels, 
the  prominent  lips,  the  structure  of  the  teeth,  the  broad  spongy 
soles  of  the  feet,  the  callous  pads  on  the  limbs,  the  complex  diges- 
tive apparatus,  and  the  water-cells,  all  point  out  a  creature  fitted 
for  feeding  on  coarse  and  thorny  herbage  and  for  traversing  sandy 
deserts.  Neither  of  these  animals  could  exchange  any  portion  of 
its  structure  with  the  other  without  serious  derangement  of  the 
whole.  This  correspondence  of  part  with  part,  and  the  adaptation 
of  every  organ  to  the  mode  of  life  prescribed,  is  so  exactly  main- 
tained, that  a  skilful  comparative  anatomist  can,  from  a  single 
tooth  or  bone,  build  up  in  imagination  the  whole  structure  of  an 
animal  which  he  never  saw,  indicate  its  form,  and  pronounce  with 
considerable  confidence  upon  its  food,  its  habits,  and  its  manner 
of  life. 

The  classification  of  the  Mammals  is  based  upon  the  structure 
of  their  teeth  and  feet.  These  are  the  organs  that  most  affect  the 
conditions  of  existence  under  which  each  is  found. 

There  is,  however,  one  group,  almost  limited  in  geographical 
extent  to  Australia  and  its  islands,  so  peculiarly  organized,  that 
they  may  be  considered  as  forming  a  connecting-link  between  the 
true  Mammals  and  the  Oviparous  Vertebrata,  and  to  these  re- 
markable quadrupeds  we  must  next  beg  the  reader's  attention. 

SUB-CLASS    O  VO-VIVIPARA.* 
ORDER  I. — MoxoTREMATA.f 

The  broad  characters  whereby  a  bird  is  distinguishable  from  a 
mammiferous  animal,  as  we  have  endeavoured  to  show,  are  plain 
and  simple  enough.  The  bird  lays  eggs  and  incubates  them  ;  the 
Mammal  produces  its  young  alive,  and  suckles  them  ;  yet,  strange 
to  say,  there  are  certain  creatures  so  exactly  intermediate  in  their 
organization  between  these  two  great  classes, 'that  even  the  ana- 

*  Ovum,  an  egg ;  viviparus,  giving  birth  to  living  offspring:  so  called  because  it  is  pro- 
blematical whether  they  produce  eggs  or  living  young. 

f  /i6foj,  monos,  single ;  Tprj/j.a,  trema,  an  orifice — i.e.,  having  a  single  excretory  and 

generative  outlet. 


362 


QUADRUPEDS. 


FIG.  399. — BURROW  OF  ORNITHDRYNCHUR, 


FIG.  400.— THE  PORCUPINE  ANT-EATER. 


tomist  has  hesi- 
tated as  to  which 
of  them  they  were 
strictly  referable, 
although  close  re- 
search has  at  last 
decided  their 
place  to  be  among 
the  Mammals. 

The  Duck-billed 

Platypus*  (Ornitho- 
rynchus  ~\~  paradoxiis  +  ) 
is  a  quadruped,  about 
two  feet  in  length,  with 
a  rounded,  .  flattened 
body,  covered  with 
short,  soft  fur,  of  a  deep 
brown  hue.  It  has  a 
broad,  flat  tail,  very 
short  legs,  and  the  toes 
are  united  by  a  web, 
which  in  the  fore  feet 
spreads  out  considerably 
beyond  the  tips  of  the 
claws.  This  formation 
enables  it  to  swim  with 
ease  and  grace ;  but  as 
it  also  burrows  in  the 
earth,  the  free  part  of 
the  web  folds  back  when 
the  animal  is  thus  en- 
gaged, and  leaves  the 
claws  unencumbered. 
The  muzzle  very  much 
resembles  the  broad, 
flat  bill  of  some  of  the 
ducks ;  it  is  covered 
with  a  blackish  skin, 
which  overlaps  at  the 
edges,  and  folds  back  at 
the  base  into  a  broad 
margin.  The  place  of 
molar  teeth  is  supplied 
by  eight  broad,  horny 
excrescences  (two  on 

*  ir\a.Tvs,  platus,  broad; 
TTOVS,  pous,  afoot. 

t  8pvis,  6pviGos,  ornis, 
ornithos,  a  bird ;  piv- 
Xos,  rynchos,  a  beak. 

1  Paradoxical. 


KANGAROOS. 


363 


each  side  of  each  mandible),  of  an  irregular  form,  which  probably  serve  as  grinders, 
but  have  no  roots.  The  eyes  are  small  but  brilliant,  and  the  orifice  of  the  ear  is  readily 
detected  by  its  opening  and  closing  in  a  living  animal,  though  scarcely  perceptible  after 
death.  This  creature  is  sometimes  called  the  "  Water-Mole."  It  delights  to  haunt  the 
broad  and  tranquil  ponds  that  are  formed  by  the  expansion  of  a  stream,  in  which  it 
swims  and  dives  with  great  facility.  Its  burrow  is  formed  in  the  earth,  and  runs  to  a 
great  distance  underground,  sometimes  extending  even  fifty  feet.  A  nest  of  grass  and 
weeds  is  formed  at  the  extremity,  where  the  parent  rears  its  young.  The  ornithorynchus 
inhabits  Australia. 

The  Porcupine  Ant-eater  (Echidna  aculeata}  is  another  Australian  animal, 
the  muzzle  of  which  forms  a  beak,  but  less  developed  than  in  the  duckbill.  It  is 
clothed  with  bristly  black  hair,  among  which  are  many  sharp  spines.  The  tongue  is 
long,  capable  of  being  thrust  out  to  a  great  length,  and  covered  with  a  glutinous  secre- 
tion, by  means  of  which  it  captures  the  ants  that  constitute  its  usual  food. 


ORDER  II. — MARSUPIALIA.* 

POUCHED   QUADRUPEDS. 

These  animals  are  remarkable  for  the  premature  production  of 
their  young,  which  are  born  in  so  early  a  stage  of  their  growth, 
that  they  are  incapa- 
ble of  motion,  and 
scarcely  show  the 
germs  of  limbs  or 
other  external  organs. 
These  little  ones  re- 
main attached  to  the 
teats  of  the  mother, 
from  whose  milk  they 
derive  their  food,  and 
are  carried  about  in  a 
pouch  formed  by  the 
skin  of  the  abdomen, 
until  they  are  able  to 
provide  for  them- 
selves. In  some  spe- 
cies, however,  this 
pouch  is  deficient. 
The  Marsupial  Quad- 
rupeds have  only  been 
found  in  America,  on 
the  Australian  conti- 
nent, and  in  some  of 
the  adjacent  islands. 
Australia,  indeed,  with  a  few  doubtful  exceptions,  produces  no 

*  Marsupium,  a  pouch. 


FIG.  401. — COMMON  KANGAROO. 


QUADRUPEDS. 


indigenous    mammiferous  animals   but  such  as  belong   to  this 
Order. 

The  Kangaroos  (Macropus]  *  are  herbivorous,  and  remarkable  for  the 
smallness  of  their  fore  feet,  and  the  length  of  their  hind  legs  and  tail,  upon 
which  they  sit  upright,  as,  on  a  tripod,  and  by  their  assistance  can  make  pro- 
digious bounds — sometimes  clearing  a  space  of  twenty  feet  at  a  single  leap. 
The  middle  toe  of  the  hind  foot  is  very  large  and  constitutes  a  formidable 
weapon.  The  kangaroos  inhabit  Australia.  One  species  (M.  major)  stands 
upwards  of  six  feet  in  height.  The  young  are  born  in  an  extremely  immature 
condition,  and  are  received  at  birth  into  a  pouch  or  fold  of  the  skin  of  the 
abdomen  of  the  mother.  Here  their  naked  and  feeble  bodies  are  protected 
from  exposure  to  the  air  and  from  all  injury  until  they  are  advanced  ingrowth 
and  strength.  Within  this  abdominal  pocket  are  situated  the  teats,  to  one  of 
which  the  infant  animal  at  a  very  early  period  attaches  itself,  and  from  it 
derives  the  nutriment  that  gradually  enables  it  to  maintain  an  independent 
life.  The  kangaroo  thus  carries  its  young  about  for  a  period  of  eight  months ; 
a  little  kangaroo  may  then  sometimes  be  seen  putting  its  head  out  of  the 
pouch,  and  nibbling  the  high  grass.  At  length  it  ventures  forth,  and  tries  its 
strength  alone ;  but  on  the  least  alarm  it  springs  again  into  its  wonted  hiding- 
place. 


FIG.  402. — VIRGINIAN  OPOSSUM 


The  Opossums  (Didelphis)  f  have  in  all  fifty  teeth  ;  their  tongue  is  rough 
and  bristly,  their  tail  prehensile  and  partly  naked.  The  thumb  of  the  hinder 
foot  is  long  and  considerably  separated  from  the  other  toes.  Their  mouth, 
which  opens  far  back,  and  their  large  naked  ears,  give  them  a  peculiar  phy- 
siognomy. They  are  fcetid  and  nocturnal  animals,  very  slow  in  their  move- 

,  makros,  long;  TTOVS,  pous,  the  foot.     f  5ts,  dis,  double;  5eX0i;s,  delphys,  a  womb. 


PHALANGERS. 


365 


ments  ;  they  lodge  in  trees,  and  there  pursue  birds  and  insects,  but  they  do 
not  reject  fruits.    About  thirty  species  have  been  described. 
The  Virginian  Opos- 

EOXDhDiddph  is  Virg  inia  11  us] 
was  the  earliest  known  of  the 
Marsupialia,  and  is  one  of  the 
largest  of  the  family.  Jt  is 
about  the  size  of  a  cat,  cover- 
ed with  grey  fur,  thick  and 
.soft,  but  of  no  value  ;  lives 
on  trees  throughout  the  whole 
United  States,  and  is  prover- 
bial for  its  singular  habit  of 
counterfeiting  death  when 
alarmed.  Another  species, 
found  in  South  America,  call- 
ed the  Mouse  Opossum  (D. 
Mnrina]  (Fig.  403),  has  the 
marsupial  pouch  imperfectly 
developed,  to  compensate  for 
which  the  parent  carries  her 
young  upon  her  back,  where 
they  better  maintain  their 

position,  amidst  the  climbing  and  leaping  movements  of  the  mother,  by  twining  their 
long,  slender,  and  prehensile  tails  around  hers. 

The  Dasyuri  (Dasyunes)*  have  the  tail  covered  with  long  hairs,  and  not 
prehensile.  They  inhabit  New  Holland,  and  live  on  insects  and  dead  flesh. 
Sometimes  they  get  into  houses,  where  their  voracity  makes  them  very  un- 
welcome guests.  They  do  not  climb  tress. 


FIG.  403. — MOUSE  OPOSSUM  AND  YOUNG. 


FIG.  404. — DORMOUSE  PHALAXGER 

The  Phalangers  (Phalangistce)  are  climbers,  and  are  furnished  with  c. 
*  Sao-us,  dasys,  hairy  ;  dvpd,  oura,  a  fail. 


366 


QUADRUPEDS. 


large  opposable  thumb.  In  their  general  form  they  somewhat  resemble 
squirrels.  Some  of  them  have  the  skin  of  their  flanks  extended  between  the 
fore  and  hind  legs,  so  as  to  form  a  sort  of  parachute,  by  the  aid  of  which  they 
take  surprising  leaps  from  one  tree  to  another ;  these  are  called  "  Flying 
Phalangers." 


FIG.  405. —Gi; NX'S  BANDICOOT. 

The  Bandicoots  (Peramelida]  remind  us  of  the  shrews  and  other  small 
insect-eating  quadrupeds.     They  are  said  to  live  on  insects,  for  which  diet 

their  teeth  seem 
suited  ;  but  some 
of  the  species  arc 
also  reported  t<~» 
feed  on  roots  and 
bulbs. 

Gunn's  Ban- 
dicoot ( Pcramdes 

Gujinii),  a  pretty 
creature,  about  as 
large  as  a  rabbit, 
marked  across  the 
loins  with  alternate 
black  and  white 
bands,  is  accused  of 
inflictinggreat  injury 
by  destroying  bulbs 
in  gardens.  These 
creatures  are  said  to 
devour  corn  in  gra- 
naries, as  rats  and 
mice  do  in  Europe. 
The  Myrmeco- 

FIG.  4o6.-MYRMEcoBirs.  "blUS  is  about  the 


WOMBAT. 


367 


size  of  a  squirrel,  nearly  black  behind  and  bright  brown  in  front,  the  whole  body  ele- 
gantly crossed  by  cream-coloured  bands.  It  has  a  greater  number  of  teeth  than  any 
other  Mammal,  except  some  of  the  dolphins  and  armadillos.  They  are  thus  arranged  • 

if;     PJ^I    FMjEj;    M^=5, 

The  Wombat  (Phascolomys  *  Wombat]  might  almost  be  mistaken  for  a  larrc 
Guinea-pig,  but  its  shape  is  more  clumsy  and  massive ;  it  is  found  scattered  over  the 
•whole  southern  part  of  New  Holland  and  Van  Dieman's  Land.  Its  teeth  resemble 
those  of  a  gnawing  quadruped,  such  as  a  rat ;  its  head  is  large,  with  the  upper  part 


'''•' 


FIG.  407. — WOMBAT. 


flattened  ;  the  eyes  are  very  small,  the  ears  short  and  pointed,  and  the  nostrils  wide 
apart.  The  limbs  are  short ;  the  feet  broad  and  naked  beneath.  The  claws  are  large 
and  solid  ;  those  of  the  fore  feet  but  slightly  curved,  and  formed  for  digging.  It  lives 
entirely  upon  roots  and  vegetables,  and  its  flesh  is  described  as  being  excellent  It  is 
of  considerable  size,  attaining  the  length  of  three  feet ;  it  is  therefore  a  valuable  animal, 
and  might  be  worth  naturalizing'  in  this  country.  This  could  probably  be  effected 
without  any  difficulty,  specimens  brought  to  Europe  having  lived  for  several  years  in 
a  state  of  domestication. 

The  Carnivorous  Marsupialta  are  very  few  in  number :  some  of 
them,  however,  are  formidable  from  their  strength  and  ferocity. 

The  Zebra  Wolf,  or  Native  Tiger  of  the  Australian  colonists  ( Thylaclnus  t 
tynoccphalus  J,  equals  a  large  dog  in  size  and  strength,  specimens  having  been  found 
four  feet  in  length,  besides  the  tail,  which  is  two  more.  It  is  nocturnal,  like  most 

0ao-/;wXos,  phascolos,  a  pouch  ;  /tus,  mus,  a  mouse.         f  fli/.Wos,  thylacos,  a  pouch  ; 
,  kyon,  a  dog.         J  KVWV,  KVVOS,  kyon,  kynos,  a  dog;  Ke<pa\ri,  cephale,  a  head. 


368 


QUADRUPEDS, 


FlG.    408.-    -ZEliKA    \V(»I.l". 

beasts  of  prey,  feeds  on  kangaroos  and  other  inoffensive  animals,  and  is  hated  by  the 
settlers  for  its  depredations  among  the  sheep  that  pasture  on  the  plains.  The  colour 
of  this  animal  is  yellowish  brown,  marked  with  transverse  bands. 

SUB-CLASS  II.    PLACENTALIA.* 

PLACENTAL   QUADRUPEDS,  f 

In  the  Placental  Mammals  the  young  are  born  completely 
furnished  with  all  their  limbs,  and  for  some  time  are  nourished 
by  milk  derived  from  the  teats  of  their  mother.  They  are  classi- 
fied as  in  the  table  on  the  opposite  page. 

ORDER  CETACEA.J 

The  Mammals  are  all  hot-blooded  and  air-breathing  animals ; 
nevertheless,  even  from  this  highly-organized  and  highly-gifted 
class,  numerous  races  have  been  selected  whose  element  is  the 
ocean,  whose  home  is  in  the  deep.  The  inhabitants  of  the  earth 
have  their  bodies  supported  on  four  legs,  so  that  they  are  neces- 

*  Animals  whose  progeny  are  nourished  by  the  intervention  of  a  placenta  during  the 

later  stages  of  gestation. 

f  Quatuor,  four ;  pes,  a  foot :  a  term  generally  applied  to  the  Mammalia. 
+  KTJTOS,  cetos,  a  ivJiale, 


PLACENTAL  MAMMALS. 


369 


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37o  CETACEA. 


sarily  restricted  in  their  growth,  and  their  bulk  is  apportioned  to 
the  strength  of  the  limbs  that  bear  their  weight ;  but,  in  the 
water,  being  buoyed  up  on  every  side  by  the  denser  medium,  the 
size  of  aquatic  animals  becomes  of  little  consequence;  thus  the 
whales  attain  prodigious  dimensions,  and,  from  the  inexhaustible 
supply  of  food  with  which  they  are  surrounded,  find  abundant 
materials  for  their  sustenance. 

The  Cetacea  are  Mammals  altogether  deprived  of  hinder  limbs. 
The  trunk  of  their  body  is  prolonged  without  any  line  of  de- 
marcation into  a  thick  tail,  terminated  by  a  broad  fin,  very  much 
resembling  in  its  general  shape  that  of  a  fish,  but  entirely  com- 
posed of  an  expansion  of  the  skin  supported  by  a  tough  cartila- 
ginous substance,  and,  instead  of  being  placed  vertically,  to  strike 
the  water  from  side  to  side,  it  is  horizontal,  so  that  by  means  of 
its  upward  and  downward  movements,  these  animals  easily  come 
to  the  surface,  or  plunge  perpendicularly  into  the  depths  below : 
their  head  is  joined  to  the  body  without  the  intervention  of  any 
apparent  neck,  and  their*  arms,  the  representative  of  the  fore 
limbs  of  quadrupeds,  are  so  flattened  and  concealed  by  the  skin, 
that  they  might  easily  be  mistaken  for  pectoral  fins.  When  de- 
nuded of  their  flesh,  however,  they  present,  under  a  modified 
shape,  bones  and  fingers  corresponding  with  those  met  with  in 
the  lion  or  the  bat.  Thus,  constructed  entirely  for  swimming, 
the  Cetacea  are  strictly  confined  to  the  watery  element ;  neverthe- 
less, they  breathe  air  by  means  of  lungs,  and  are  thus  perpetually 
obliged  to  come  to  the  surface  for  the  purpose  of  respiration. 
Their  blood  is  hot ;  they  bring  forth  living  young,  which  they  feed 
with  their  own  milk,  precisely  in  the  same  way  as  the  terrestrial 
quadrupeds;  and  thus  in  all  the  details  of  their  structure  they 
differ  widely  from  the  cold-blooded,  gill-breathing,  and  oviparous 
fishes.  Diving,  as  the  whales  not  unfrequently  do,  to  consider- 
able depths,  their  bodies  are  subjected  upon  such  occasions  to 
enormous  pressure,  to  sustain  which  their  body  is  enveloped  in 
a  covering  that  possesses  great  elasticity.  Their  skin  is  greatly 
thickened,  and  made  up  of  a  texture  of  interwoven  fibres  enclosing 
an  immense  quantity  of  oil  or  blubber,  thus  forming  an  integu- 
ment admirably  adapted  to  resist  compression.  This  thick  blanket 
of  fat,  moreover,  retains  the  vital  warmth,  and  thus  enables  the 
Cetaceans  even  to  inhabit  the  coldest  regions  of  the  ocean.  Being 
lighter  than  water,  it  also  greatly  contributes  to  the  buoyancy  of 
these  unwieldy  animals.  A  dead  whale  floats  ;  but  the  carcase, 
when  stripped  of  the  blubber,  sinks  immediately. 


DOLPHINS. 


37* 


<3 

9 


FJG.  409. — TKOOP  OF  DOLPHINS,  MANATEE  IN  THE  DISTANCE. 

The  Cetaceans  are  divisible  into  three  sections,  two  of  which 
are  strictly  inhabitants  of  the  sea,  and  live  upon  marine  animals  ; 
while  the  third,  generally  met  with  near  the  mouths  of  rivers,  are 
herbivorous,  and  present  a  manifest  approximation  to  the  terres- 
trial Pachyderms.  Of  the  two  sections  first  mentioned,  one  is 
distinguished  by  having  the 
head  of  ordinary  proportions 
when  compared  with  the  size 
of  the  body,  while  in  the  other 
the  head  is  of  enormous  di- 


mensions. To  the  first  section 
belong  the  Dolphins  and  Nar- 
whals ;  the  second  includes 
the  Whales  properly  so  called; 
while  the  third  comprehends  the  Manatees  and»Dugongs. 


FIG.  410.— BONES  OF  THE  FIN  OF  A  DOLPHIN. 


SECTION   I. — ORDINARY  CETACEANS. 

The  Dolphins  (Dclphinus)  have  teeth  both  in  the  upper  and 
lower  jaw,  of  the  simplest  structure  and  conical  in  shape.  These 
animals  are  the  most  carnivorous,  and,  in  proportion  to  their  size, 
the  most  voracious  of  the  class. 


24—2 


372 


CETACEA, 


The  Dolphins,  properly  so  called  (Delphinus},  have  the  forehead  arched 
and  the  snout  prolonged  into  a  sort  of  beak. 

The  Common  Dolphin  (Delphinus  delphis]  is  provided  with  from  forty-two  to 
forty-seven  slender  curved  and  sharp-pointed  teeth  in  each  jaw ;  it  is  black  above,  white 
beneath,  and  from  eight  to  ten  feet  in  length.  It  is  found  abundantly  around  the  British 
shores  and  all  over  the  Atlantic  and  Mediterranean.  Its  elegant  and  graceful  form,  the 
extraordinary  fleetness  with  which  it 'darts  through  the  water,  and  its  agile  gambols, 
have  been  celebrated  in  all  ages. 

The  Porpoises  (Plioccend]  have  no  prolonged  snout ;  their  muzzle  is  short 
and  uniformly  convex. 

The  Common  Porpoise  (DelpJiinus  PJwccena]  is  furnished  with  compressed 
cuttkig  teeth  of  a  rounded  form,  about  five-and-twenty  in  number,  on  each  side  of  both 
jaws.  It  is  the  smallest  of  the  Cetacea,  seldom  exceeding  four  or  five  feet  in  length ; 
it  is  very  common  in  all  our  seas,  where  it  is  met  with  in  large  shoals. 

The  Grampus  (Delphinus  Oreo)  has  thick  conical  teeth,  about  eleven  in  number 
on  each  side,  a  little  crooked,  the  posterior  ones  flattened  transversely.  The  body  is 
black  above,  white  below,  with  a  white  mark  over  the  eye  in  the  shape  of  a  crescent. 
The  dorsal  fin  is  high  and  pointed.  This  is  the  largest  of  the  dolphins,  being  fre- 
quently from  twenty  to  twenty-five  feet  long.  Grampuses  are  said  to  attack  the  whale 
in  troops,  harass  it  until  it  opens  its  mouth,  and  then  devour  its  tongue. 

The  Narwhals  ^Monodoii}  have  no  teeth  in  the  mouth,  but  are  furnished 
with  a  straight  and  pointed  tusk,  projecting  from  the  upper  jaw  and  directed 
straight  forward.  The  form  of  the  head  and  body  much  resembles  that  of  the 
porpoises.  Only  one  species  is  well  known,  namely, 

The  Sea-Unicorn  (Monodon*  monoccros^}.  The  tusk  of  this  animal  is  some- 
times ten  feet  long,  spirally  twisted,  and  wTas  formerly  thought  to  be  the  horn  of  the 

*  [j,6vos,  monos,  single ;  odovs,  oSovros,  odous,  odontos,  a  tooth, 
f  /j.6vos,  monos,  single;  /cepas,  ceras,  aJwrn. 


WHALES. 


373 


FlG.    412.— Sl'EAKING   THE   NARWHAL. 

fabulous  Unicorn.  The  narwhal,  however,  possesses  the  germ  of  two  tusks,  one  on 
each  side ;  but  it  rarely  happens  that  both  grow  equally.  Usually  that  on  the  left  side 
only  is  developed,  and  the  other  remains  concealed  in  its  socket.  In  general,  this 
animal  is  not  more  than  twice  or  three  times  the  length  of  its  tusk.  Its  skin  is  marbled 
with  brown  and  white ;  its  blow-hole  is  at  the  top  of  its  head ;  and,  instead  of  a  dorsal 
fin,  it  has  a  ridge  running  along  the  whole  length  of  its  back. 


SECTION   II.— TRUE  WHALES. 

The  True  Whales  have  the  head  so  large  that  it  constitutes 
one-third  or  even  one-half  of  their  length.  The  skull  proper  and 
the  brain  have  nothing  to  do  with  this  extreme  disproportion, 
which  is  altogether  owing  to  the  enormous  size  of  the  bones  of 
the  face.  To  this  section  belong 

The  Cachalots  (Physeter)  *,  generally  called  Spermaceti  Whales.  These 
animals  have  a  very  voluminous  head,  enormously  expanded,  especially  in  front. 
They  have  no  whalebone  nor  any  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw.  Their  letter  jaw  is 
narrow,  and  armed  on  each  side  with  a  row  of  conical  or  cylindrical  teeth, 
which  are  received  into  corresponding  cavities  of  the  upper  jaw  when  the 
mouth  is  closed.  The  upper  part  of  their  prodigious  head  is  occupied  by  large 
excavations,  or  rather  caverns,  covered  and  separated  by  cartilaginous  vaults, 

*  <t>v<rr)Trip,  physeter,  a  blower  or  bellows. 


374 


CETACEA. 


FIG.  413.— SPERM  WHALE. 

and  filled  with  an  oil  that  crystallizes  as  it  cools  into  the  substance  well  known 
in  commerce  by  the  name  of  "  spermaceti."    The  cavities  in  which  the  sper- 


FIG.  414. — WHALE  FISHERY. 

maceti  is  lodged  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  real  skull,  which  is  rather  small, 
placed  beneath  them,  and  contains  the  brain  in  the  usual  manner.  From  the 
head  of  a  single  cachalot  are  obtained  from  eighteen  to  twenty  barrels  of  fluid 


WHALES. 


375 


spermaceti.    The  usual  length  of  this  gigantic  Cetacean  is  upwards  of  seventy 
feet,  and  its  circumference  at  the  largest  part  fifty-two  feet. 

The  Whalebone  Whales  (Balcend]  *  are  provided  with  heads  of  enor- 
mous magnitude  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  their  bodies,  but  not  much  ex- 
panded in  front,  and  they  have  no  true  teeth.  Their  upper  jaw  has  both  its 
sides  furnished  with  thickly-set  plates  composed  of  a  peculiar  horny  substance 
called  "  whalebone."  These  plates  are  thin  and  fringed  at  their  margin,  form- 
ing a  kind  of  sieve,  that  serves  to  retain  the  small  animals  on  which  these 
gigantic  creatures  live.  The  lower  jaw,  totally  destitute  of  teeth,  lodges  a  fleshy 
tongue  of  stupendous  bulk,  which,  when  the  mouth  is  closed,  compresses  all 


»^ 


FIG.  415.— WHALEBONE  WHALE. 

the  interior  of  the  upper  jaw  and  the  plates  of  whalebone  suspended  from  its 
roof.  This  structure  of  the  mouth  does  not  allow  the  whales  to  live  upon 
animals  so  large  as  their  size  would  lead  us  to  suppose.  They  subsist  prin- 
cipally on  small  fish,  but  still  more  on  worms,  Mollusks,  and  Zoophytes,  which 
become  entangled  in  the  fringes  of  their  whalebone.  The  lower  jaw  is  very 
deep,  and  shaped  somewhat  like  a  vast  spoon.  When  the  whale  feeds  it  swims 
rapidly  just  under  or  at  the  surface,  with  its  mouth  wide  open.  The  water, 
wiih  all  its  contents,  rushes  into  the  immense  cavity,  and  filters  out  at  the  sides 
between  the  plates  of  the  whalebone,  which  are  so  close  and  so  finely  fringed 
that  every  particle  of  solid  matter  is  retained. 


SECTION   III. — HERBIVOROUS  CETACEA. 

The  Herbivorous  Cetacea  are  provided  with  teeth  having  flat 
crowns,  a  character  that   indicates  their  mode  of  subsistence  ; 

*  Balcena,  a  whale. 


376 


CETACEA. 


accordingly,  they  emerge  from  the  water  to  seek  their  pasture  on 
the  shore.  They  have  two  mammae  on  the  breast,  and  hairs  like 
moustachios  ;  two  circumstances  which,  when  they  raise  the  body 
out  of  the  water,  give  them  some  resemblance  to  men  and  women, 
and  have  probably  given  rise  to  the  ancient  fables  about  Tritons 
and  Sirens,  and  more  modern  tales  of  Mermaids  and  similar 
monsters.  Their  nostrils  open  at  the  extremity  of  their  muzzle. 

The  Sea-Cows  (Manatus)*)  have  a  long,  whale-like  body,  terminated  by 
an  oblong  oval  fin.  Vestiges  of  claws  may  be  discovered  on  the  edges  of  their 
fin-like  paws,  indicating  the  tips  of  so  many  fingers,  so  that  they  can  use  their 
limbs  with  tolerable  dexterity  in  creeping  upon  the  ground  and  in  carrying 


FlG.  «4l6.  -MANATEE. 

their  little  ones.  These  fins  have  been  compared  to  hands,  and  hence  is 
derived  the  name  by  which  they  are  distinguished.  They  inhabit  the  warm 
regions  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  near  the  mouths  of  rivers,  which  they  some- 
times ascend  to  a  considerable  distance.  They  live  in  flocks,  often  land,  and 
are  readily  approached.  They  display  the  greatest  attachment  to  their  com- 
panions. The  manati  are  sometimes  fifteen  or  even  twenty  feet  in  length ; 
their  flesh  is  eaten  and  esteemed  a  luxury. 

The  Dugongs  (Halicore)^  differ  from  the  manati  by  having  their  tail  fin- 
shaped,  like  a  crescent,  and  pointed  tusks  that  protrude  from  the  upper  jaw. 
They  inhabit  the  shores  of  the  Indian  Ocean. 


From  "manus,"  a  hand— furnished  ivith  hands. 
f  aXy,  hals,  the  sea  ;  Kopij,  core,  a  maiden. 


ELEPHANTS. 


377 


FIG.  417. — WART-HOG,  INDIAN  RHINOCEROS,  AND  RIVER- HORSE. 


ORDER  PACHYDERMATA.* 

The  relationship  between  the  whales  and  the  elephant  is  not 
very  remote  :  the  bulky  head,  the  giant  size,  the  thick  and  naked 
skin,  the  prolonged  tusks,  and  the  straggling  irregularity  of  the 
teeth,  are  alike  indicative  of  the  aquatic  Cetaceans  and  of  the 
marsh-loving  Pachyderms  that  next  offer  themselves  to  our  notice. 

These  animals  are  remarkable  for  the  thickness  of  their  skin, 
and  for  having  their  toes  enclosed  in  hoofs.  They  have  a  single 
stomach,  and  do  not  chew  the  cud.  This  Order  includes  the  largest 
terrestrial  Mammalia  at  present  in  existence.  Except  the  horse, 
they  are  all  clumsy  in  their  shape,  and  have  a  heavy,  indolent  gait. 
They  generally  live  together  in  herds,  and  frequent  marshy  situa- 
tions, where  they  find  vegetation  and  roots  suited  to  their  wants, 
and  where  they  can  wallow  in  the  mud.  Although  they  resemble 
each  other  in  the  general  features  of  their  economy,  they  are  cis- 

,  pachys,  thick;  5epfj.a,  derma,  the  skin :  thick-skinned. 


378  QUADRUPEDS. 


tinguishable  by  important  particulars,  which  has  rendered  it  ne- 
cessary to  divide  them  into  the  following  groups  :  Proboscidian 
Pachyderms,  Ordinary  Pachyderms,  and  Solipedes. 

SECTION   OF   PROBOSCIDIAN   PACHYDERMS. 

The  Proboscidian  Pachyderms  are  furnished  with  a  pro- 
boscis :  they  have  five  toes  on  all  the  feet,  but  so  enclosed  in  a 


FIG.  418.— HEAD  OF  INDIAN  ELEPHANT. 

hoof  of  callous  skin  that  their  nails  only  are  visible.     This  family 
includes  but  one  living  genus,  namely, 

The  Elephants  (Elephas\  animals  of  gigantic  size,  but  mild  and  docile  in 
their  disposition.  The  proboscis  of  the  elephant  is  a  prolongation  of  its  nos- 
trils ;  it  consists  of  a  double  tube  surrounded  with  muscles  variously  interlaced, 
so  that  it  is  moveable  in  every  direction,  and  terminates  in  a  curious  appen- 
dage resembling  a  finger.  This  trunk  enables  the  elephant  to  seize  hold  of 
everything  he  wishes  to  convey  into  his  mouth,  also  to  pump  up  water,  and 
then  to  pour  it  into  his  throat,  thus  compensating  for  the  shortness  of  the  neck. 
By  means  of  this  wonderful  instrument,  elephants  can  uproot  trees,  untie . 
knots,  open  a  lock,  or  even  write  with  a  pen.  These  animals  possess  a  sharp 
sight ;  their  hearing  is  quick,  their  sense  of  smell  delicate.  They  are  very 
intelligent,  and  remember  kindness  as  well  as  harshness.  Elephants  usually 
live  together  in  herds,  consisting  of  from  forty  to  a  hundred  individuals.  The 
oldest  marches  at  the  head  of  the  troop,  and  the  next  in  age  watches  the  rear. 
They  are  easily  tamed  when  taken  young,  and  are  employed  as  beasts  of 
burden.  They  carry  about  two  thousand  pounds  weight,  and  will  travel,  with- 
out being  very  much  fatigued,  thirty  or  forty  miles  a  day.  These  animals 
swim  well :  they  live  to  the  age  of  nearly  two  hundred  years.  Conscious  of 
their  own  massive  strength,  they  feared  no  enemies,  till  the  aggressions  of 
man  taught  them  his  superiority.  Inoffensive  and  peaceful,  they  rarely  use 
their  gigantic  powers  of  injury ;  but  when  irritated,  they  often  exhibit  a  furious 


RHINOCEROS. 


379 


and  revengeful  ferocity.     Heavy  and  massive  in  their  structure,  their  pillar- 
like  limbs  seem  ill  calculated  for  speed,  yet  their  "  pace,"  when  they  have  fairly 
commenced  it,  from  the  length  of  their  stride  and  the  great  propelling  weight 
of  their  bodies,  is  for  a  time  very  rapid,  and  bears  before  it  all  ordinary 
obstacles,  clearing  a  way  through  the  thickest  and  most  matted  underwood. 
Two  species  of  elephants  are  known  in  existing  nature  : 
The  Indian  Elephant  (Elephas  Indicns)  has  an  oblong  head,  a  concave  forehead, 
ears  of  middling  size,  and  four  nails  on  the  hind  feet.     Its  tusks  are  often  very  short. 
The  African  Elephant  (Elephas  Afncamis}  has  a  round  head,  a  convex  fore- 
head, large  flattened  ears,  and  but  three  nails  on  the  hind  feet.     It  is  more  fierce  than 
that  of  India ;  its  tusks  are  much  longer,  and  the  female  has  them  as  long  as  the  male. 
This  species  is  not  tamed 


FIG.  419. — AFRICAN'  ELEPHANTS. 


SECTION   OF   ORDINARY   PACHYDERMS. 

The  Ordinary  Pachyderms  are  distinguished  by  having  no 
prehensile  proboscis,  and  feet  provided  with  three  or  four  distinct 
toes.  They  are  divided  into  several  genera,  as  in  the  table  on 
page  380. 

The  River  Horse  (Hippopotamus]  *  is  found  in  most  of  the  rivers  of 
Africa,  but  in  greatest  numbers  south  of  the  equator.  These  are  unwieldy- 
looking  animals,  having  their  legs  so  short  that  the  belly  almost  touches  the 
ground.  The  feet  are  curiously  constructed,  so  as  to  facilitate  walking  among 

*  ITTTTOS,  hippos,  a  horse;  Trorct.tos,  potamos,  a  rk-cr. 


380 


QUADRUPEDS. 


« 
H 


^B 


Equal,   and    the    foot~J 
having    the    appear-  £•  Four  equal  toes . 
ance  of  being  forked  } 


.    Hippopotamus. 


(  Two  large  middle  toes  ~\ 
\    armed    with     strong  / 

Having  on  all  the  feet-j    hoofs,  while  the  late-  f  Hog. 
j    ral  toes  are  too  short  I 
(^    to  rest  on  the  ground  J 


§ 

o 


f  Three  toes  on  all  the 

Unequal,  and  the  foot  J  

not  forked    .     .     .     -1  Four  toes  before  and 
L    three  behind 


T      • 
Tapir. 


the  mud  and  reeds  of  the  river-bottoms,  and  enable  them  to  swim  with  ease. 
The  hoof  is  divided  into  four  short,  apparently  clumsy,  and  unconnected  toes, 
and  they  are  able,  through  this  spread  of  foot,  to  walk  rapidly  through  the 
marsh.  These  animals  consort  together  in  flocks  of  from  three  to  thirty.  They 
choose  shallow  parts  of  the  river,  where  the  depth  of  the  water  allows  them  to 
keep  their  footing,  and  yet  have  their  whole  body  submerged.  Here  they  re- 
main all  day,  swimming  off  into  the  deeps,  and  diving  for  their  grassy  food. 
They  prefer  localities  where  the  current  is  not  very  swift,  and  are  therefore  to 
be  found  in  all  the  lakes  of  the  interior. 


FIG.  420. — WILD  BOAR. 

The  Hogs  (Sits)  have  on  all  their  feet  two  middle  toes,  which  are  of  large 


RHINOCEROS. 


size,  and  armed  with  strong  hoofs,  and  two  exterior  toes,  which  are  much 
shorter,  and  scarcely  touch  the  ground  in  walking.  Their  canine  teeth  bend 
upwards  so  as  to  form  projecting  tusks,  and  their  snout  is  flattened  and  adapted 
for  rooting  in  the  earth. 

The  Rhinoceros  (Rhinoceros]*   These  are  large  animals,  with  each  foot 
divided  into  three  toes.     The  bones  of  the  nose  are  very  thick,  and  united 


FIG.  421. — SKULL  OF  RHINOCEROS. 

into  a  sort  of  vault,  upon  which  is  supported  a  solid  horn,  composed  of  aggluti- 
nated hairs.  They  frequent  marshy  places,  and  live  on  herbs  and  the  branches 
of  trees. 


FIG.  422. — AMERICAN  TAI-IK. 

The  Tapirs  ( Tapir]  have  their  nose  prolonged  into  a  short  proboscis,  which, 
although  very  moveable,  is  not  prehensile  like  thit  of  the  elephant.  There 
are  several  species  known. 

*  blv,  pt.v6],  rhin,  rhinos,  a  nose;  Kfpas,  keras,  a  horn. 


382  QUADRUPEDS. 


SECTION   OF  THE  SOLIPEDES. 

The  third  section  of  Pachyderms  comprehend 
The  Solipedes,  having  only  one  apparent  toe  on  each  foot, 
which  is  enclosed  in  a  single  hoof.     They  have,  however,  under 
the  skin,  the  rudiments  of  lateral  toes.    Only  one  genus  is  known, 
namely, 

The  Horses  (Equus),  distinguished  by  having  six  incisors  in  each  jaw ; 
small  canines  likewise  exist  in  the  males,  which  are  wanting  in  the  females. 
Between  the  canines  and  the  first  cheek-tooth  there  is  a  space  which  corre- 
sponds with  the  angle  of  the  lips,  where  the  bit  is  placed,  an  arrangement  by 
which  alone  man  has  been  able  to  subjugate  this  vigorous  quadruped. 

The  Horse  (Equus  Caballus],  the  noble  companion  of  man  in  the  battle  and  the 
chase,  in  the  labours  of  agriculture  and  of  commerce,  is  of  unknown  origin.  It  would 
seem,  he  exists  in  a  wild  state  only  in  those  places  where  horses,  formerly  domesti- 
cated, have  been  left  in  freedom,  as  in  Tartary  and  America.  In  such  places  they  live 
in  troops,  conducted  and  defended  by  an  old  male.  The  importation  of  horses  into 
the  latter  country  dates  about  three  hundred  years  back,  but,  nevertheless,  wild  horses 
«xist  there  in  immense  numbers.  It  is  asserted  that  troops  consisting  of  more  than  ten 
thousand  individuals  are  occasionally  met  with.  The  horse  is  distinguished  by  the 
uniformity  of  his  colour,  and  by  his  tail  being  ornamented  with  long  hair  throughout 
its  whole  length. 

As  intrepid  as  his  master,  the  horse  sees  danger  only  to  face  it ;  but,  docile  as  he  is 
courageous,  he  responds  to  the  slightest  touch  of  the  rein  that  guides  him.  The  horse 
gives  himself  entirely  up  to  the  service  of  mankind,  understands  what  is  required  from 
him,  and  refusing  nothing,  labours  with  all  his  strength,  and  even  dies  rather  than 
<lisobey. 


V 


FIG.  423. — WILD  Ass. 

The  Ass  (Asinus)  is  distinguished  from  the  horse  by  his  small  size,  by  his 


ZEBRA.  383 


long  ears,  by  the  black  cross  over  his  shoulders,  and  by  the  tuft  of  hair  nt  the 
end  of  his  tail.  Though  not  so  powerful  as  the  horse,  he  is  more  patient  and 
quiet,  and  scarcely  less  valuable  to  the  peasant. 

The  ass  has  generally  been  classed  as  a  variety  of  the  horse.  Dr.  Gray,  however, 
who  has  been  followed  by  Professor  Bell,  separates  the  ass,  under  the  generic  name  of 
Asinus,  leaving  the  horse  alone  to  fill  the  genus  Eqmts. 

The  ass,  therefore,  is  not  a  horse  with  a  naked  tail ;  he  is  no  mongrel,  but,  like  all 
other  animals,  has  his  family,  his  rank,  and  his  species.  Although  his  nobility  is  not 
quite  so  illustrious,  it  is  quite  as  pure  and  quite  as  ancient  as  that  of  the  horse.  "Why, 
therefore,  is  it  that  the  ass — so  patient,  so  sober,  so  useful — is  treated  with  so  little 
consideration?  Is  it  because  he  serves  mankind  too  well  and  too  cheaply?  Xo  one 
ever  seems  to  think,  as,  stick  in  hand,  he  drives  the  overladen  slave  along  the'dusty  road, 
that  were  there  no  horses  in  the  world,  the  ass  would  be  the  most  useful,  and  doubt- 
less the  best  cared -for,'  animal  in  creation.  As  it  is,  he  is  only  the  second,  instead  of 
being  the  first ;  but,  being  second,  he  is  looked  upon  with  contempt.  It  is  by  com- 
parison only  that  he  is  so  degraded :  he  is  regarded,  not  in  accordance  with  what  he 
is,  but  with' what  he  is  not :  he  has  all  the  attributes  belonging  to  his  own  nature  per- 
fect in  their  kind  ;  but  we  expect  in  him  the  form  and  qualities  of  the  horse,  which  he 
does  not  and  ought  not  to  possess.  His  natural  disposition  is  as  humble,  as  patient,  as 
quiet  as  that  of  the  horse  is  proud,  ardent,  and  impetuous.  He  suffers  with  constancy 
and  \vith  courage  the  blows  which  he  does  not  deserve  ;  he  is  content  with  the  coarsest 
herbage  ;  in  everything  the  willing  slave  of  man,  his  only  deficiency  is  that  he  is  not 
a  horse. 


FIG.  424.  —  ZEBRA. 

The  Zebra  (Asinus  Zebra],  very  like  the  ass  in  form  and  proportions,  is  at  once  the 
most  elegant  and  the  most  intractable  of  animals.  His  skin  has  the  softness  of  satin, 
and  is  adorned  with  beautiful  ribbon-like  stripes.  In  the  female,  these  stripes  are  alter- 
nately black  and  white  ;  in  the  male,  brown  and  yellow.  The  limbs  are  remarkably 
slender.  These  animals  are  found  in  the  southern  parts  of  Africa,  and  numerous  herds 
are  often  seen  grazing  on  the  extensive  plains  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

The  Quagga  (Asinns  Quagga)  resembles  the  horse  much  more  than  the  zebra  :  it 
is  striped  only  on  the  shoulders  and  back. 


QUADRUPEDS. 


FIG.  425. — QUAGGA. 

The  Onager  (Asi)ms  inontanus],  or  Mountain  Horse,  is  smaller  than  the  ass, 
and  is  marked  on  the  head,  neck,  and  trunk,  by  alternately  wide  and  narrow  black 
stripes,  upon  an  isabella  or  bay  ground.  His  legs  and  tail  are  white. 

ORDER  RUMINANTIA.* 

The  grand  character  given  in  the  inspired  volume  whereby  to 
distinguish  those  Quadrupeds  which  are  specially  adapted  for 
human  food,  is  that  "  they  divide  the  hoof  and  chew  the  cud,"  a 
description  so  concise,  and  at  the  same  time  so  comprehensive, 
that  modern  science  has  not  been  able  to  improve  it.  It  em- 
braces, in  fact,  the  extensive  Order  of  Ruminants,  which  next 
offers  itself  for  our  notice. 

The  animals  belonging  to  this  Order  are  recognizable  from  the 
circumstance  that  they  all  chew  the  cud.  Secondly,  they  have 
incisor  teeth  only  in  the  lower  jaw,  generally  eight  in  number. 
Thirdly,  they  have  on  each  foot  two  toes,  enveloped  in  hoofs 
which  face  each  other  by  a  flat  side,  so  that  they  have  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  single  hoof  split  in  two  or  cloven. 

The  Ruminantia  are  large  animals,  without  much  intelligence, 
but  which,  nevertheless,  render  immense  service  to  man.  They 
furnish  him  with  nearly  all  the  meat  that  he  eats ;  their  milk 
supplies  excellent  food  ;  they  possess  a  fat,  named  suet,  which  is 

*  Ruminate,  to  chew  the  cud. 


CAMELS.  385 

harder  than  that  of  other  quadrupeds,  and  is  applied  to  many 
purposes  in  the  arts  and  domestic  economy.  Their  skin,  prepared 
by  tanning,  furnishes  nearly  all  the  leather  we  use;  their  horns, 
their  blood,  their  bones,  even  their  intestines,  which  are  manu- 
factured into  strings,  are  all  serviceable  to  us.  When  living, 
many  of  them  are  employed  as  beasts  of  burden,  equally  valuable 
in  commerce  and  in  agriculture. 

This  Order  may  be  divided  into  two  sections.  The  first  com- 
prises such  Ruminants  as  are  without  horns ;  the  second,  Rumi- 
nants with  horns,  either  in  both  sexes  or  in  the  male  only. 

RUMINANTS  WITHOUT  HORNS. 

Ruminants  which  are  entirely  without  horns  also  differ  from 
other  Ruminants  in  their  teeth,  and  somewhat  resemble  the 
Pachydermata.  They  are  the  Camel  and  the  Musk. 


FIG.  426.— ARABIAN  CAMEL. 

The  Camels  (Camelus],  comprehending  Camels  properly  so  called  and 
Llamas,  differ  from  all  other  Ruminantia  in  having  only  six  incisor  teeth  in 
the  lower  jaw.  Their  feet  are  not  cloven,  and  have  very  small  hoofs ;  the 
neck  is  very  long,  the  limbs  by  no  means  elegant  in  their  proportions,  and 
their  upper  lips  swollen  and  cleft. 

The  Camels  proper  are  peculiar  to  the  Old  World.  There  are  two  species  of 
these  useful  animals,  the  Bactrian  Camel  ( Camehts  Bactrianus],  a  native  of  Central  Asia, 
distinguished  by  having  two  humps  upon  his  back,  and  the  Arabian  Camel  (Camelus 
Dromcdarius),  which  has  only  one.  The  species  last  mentioned  is  common  in  Arabia, 

25 


386 


QUADRUPEDS. 


Syria,  and  throughout  the  north  of  Africa.  They  are  both  remarkable  for  extreme 
gentleness  and  docility,  and  for  their  patience  in  travelling  under  the  weight  of  enor- 
mous burdens.  The  usual  load  of  a  camel  is  from  six  to  eight  hundred  pounds,  and 
with  this  weight  upon  their  backs  they  will  travel  from  forty  to  fifty  miles  a  day  ;  but 
the  swift  camels  or  dromedaries  carrying  only  a  single  man  move  with  wonderful  rapi- 
dity :  these  will  traverse,  for  several  successive  days,  from  seventy  to  one  hundred  miles 
in  the  twenty-four  hours.  This  animal,  emphatically  described  by  the  Arabian  epithet 
the  Ship  of  the  Desert,  furnishes  the  only  means  of  communication  whereby  many 

Eastern  nations  separated  from  each 
other  by  burning  deserts  carry  on  their 
commerce :  his  strength  and  capability 
of  enduring  prolonged  abstinence  both 
from  food  and  water,  alone  render  this 
intercourse  possible  ;  and  in  few  in- 
stances is  the  beneficence  of  the  Creator 
more  conspicuous  than  in  the  construc- 
tion of  these  invaluable  helpmates  of 
the  human  race.  To  enable  him  to 
move  with  facility  over  a  soft  sandy 
surface,  his  feet  are  broad  and  cushion- 
shaped  and  his  limbs  long ;  he  picks 
the  thorny  bushes  as  he  passes  without 
halting ;  and  provided  with  an  extra- 
FIG.  427.— WATER-CELLS  OF  THE  CAMEL.  ordinary  apparatus  in  his  stomach,  in 

which  he  carries  water  (Fig.  427),  he 

resists  the  burning  heat  for  ten  or  even  twelve  days  without  drinking ;  and  if  during 
this  space  of  time  his  food  has  been  still  more  scanty  than  his  sober  habits  demand,  or 


y  • 


FIG.  428. — LLAMA. 


the  few  dates,  beans,  or  cakes  usually  in  store  for  him  are  exhausted,  the  fat  which 
composes  almost  the  whole  of  the  hump  or  humps  upon  his  back  serves  as  an  extra 


LLAMAS.  387 


supply  of  nutriment :  the  humps  become  reduced  in  size ;  their  substance,  reabsorbed,  is 
taken  into  the  general  circulation,  and  supports  him  to  the  end  of  his  journey,  or  till  he 
sinks  under  privations  which  no  other  animal  differently  constituted  could  have  borne 
for  half  the  period.  To  the  wild  Arab  of  the  desert  the  camel  is  all  that  his  necessi- 
ties require  ;  he  feeds  on  the  flesh,  drinks  the  milk,  makes  clothes  and  tents  of  the  hair, 
sandals,  saddles,  and  buckets  of  the  hide ;  he  conveys  himself  and  family  on  his  back ; 
makes  a  pillow  of  his  side,  and  resorts  to  him  for  shelter  against  the  whirlwind  of  sand. 
Couched  in  a  circle  around  him,  his  camels  form  a  fence,  and  in  battle  an  entrench- 
ment, behind  which  his  family  and  his  property  are  obstinately,  and  often  successfully, 
defended. 

The  Llamas  (Auclienia]  *  are  the  representatives  of  the  camels  in  the 
New  World,  but  possess  neither  their  strength  nor  size.  Their  proportions 
are  lighter ;  they  have  no  humps  ;  and  their  toes,  not  being  joined,  are  suf- 
ficiently moveable  to  enable  them  to  climb  rocks  with  the  activity  of  goats. 
Two  species  are  known — the  Llama  proper  and  the  Vicuuia. 

The  Llama  (Auchenia  Llaoma)  is  met  with  in  the  mountainous  districts  of  South 
America.  It  is  of  the  size  of  a  stag,  and  covered  with  thick  fur  of  a  chestnut  colour. 
At  the  time  of  the  conquest  of  Peru  by  the  Spaniards,  it  was  the  only  beast  of  burden 
in  that  country,  and  still  continues  to  be  employed  for  the  same  purpose.  Its  usual 
load  is  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds ;  but  it  is  only  capable  of  making  short 
journeys. 


The  Alpaca,  or  Paco,  is  a  variety  of  the  domesticated  llama,  celebrated  for 
its  long  woolly  hair,  which  in  fineness  and  elasticity  is  not  much  inferior  to  the  most 
beautiful  wool  of  the  goats  of  Thibet. 

The  Vicunia  (Camelus  Vicunna)  is  about  the  size  of  a  sheep,  covered  with  yellow- 
brown  wool  of  admirable  fineness  and  softness,  which  hangs  like  long  silk  upon  its 

*  a.vxfy,  auchen,  the  throat:  so  called  irom  their  pendulous  throats. 

25 — 3 


388 


QUADRUPEDS. 


breast.    It  inhabits  the  Andes  of  Chili  and  Peru,  near  the  line  of  perpetual  snow,  and  is 
actively  hunted  on  account  of  its  wool,  which  is  manufactured  into  valuable  stuffs  and  hats. 

The  Musks  (Moschus}  differ  from  ordinary  Ruminants  in  the 
absence  of  horns,  and  in  having  long  canine  teeth  in  .the  upper 
jaw.  They  are  beautiful  animals,  equally  remarkable  for  their 
elegance  and  their  activity. 

The  Musk  (Moschus  moschiferns}  is  about  the  size  of  a  goat.  It  has  no  tail,  and  is 
entirely  covered  with  hairs  so  thick  and  brittle  that  they  might  be  almost  called  spines. 

The  musks  are,  however,  more  especially  remarkable  for  the  possession  of  a  pouch,  situ- 
ated beneath  the  abdomen,  which  is  filled  with  that  odoriferous  substance  so  well  known 
in  medicine  and  perfumery  by  the  name  of  musk.  This  species  appears  to  be  proper  to 
that  rocky  country  extending  between  China  and  Thibet.  It  is  a  nocturnal  and  soli- 
tary animal,  and  its  timidity  is  extreme. 

The  other  musks  have  no  musk-pouch.  They  all  inhabit  the  hot  countries  of  the 
old  continent,  and  are  the  smallest  and  most  elegant  of  the  Ruminants  (Fig.  429). 

RUMINANTS   WITH   HORNS. 

All  the  other  Ruminants  are  provided  (at  least,  the  male  sex) 
with  two  horns;  that  is  to  say,  with  projections  of  greater  or  less 
length,  derived  from  the  frontal  bones,  and  which  do  not  exist  in 
any  other  animals.  These  horns  are  of  three  kinds. 


FIG.  430.— STAG'S  HORN  IN  SUCCESSIVE  YEARS. 

Sometimes,  as  in  the  giraffe,  they  are  enveloped  in  a  hairy  skin, 
continuous  with  that  of  the  head,  and  are  never  shed. 


HORNED  RUMINANTS.  389 


£ 

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dHNHOH 


Sometimes,  as  in  the  stags,  the  horns  are  shed  annually :  during 
their  early  growth  they  are  covered  with  a  soft  velvety  skin ;  but 
they  have  at  their  base  a  prominent  ring  of  bony  protuberances, 
which,  as  they  grow,  compress  and  obliterate  the  nutritive  blood- 


QUADRUPEDS. 


vessels  of  this  skin,  which  then  dries,  withers,  and  is  stripped  off. 
The  horns,  thus  laid  bare,  become  for  a  season  formidable  weapons ; 
but  in  time  they  separate  from  the  skull  and  fall  off.  Soon,  how- 
ever, new  ones  begin  to  make  their  appearance,  which  ultimately 
become  larger  than  their  predecessors,  but,  like  them,  are  destined 
to  be  shed  at  the  end  of  the  year,  under  the  influence  of  the  same 
causes.  Weapons  of  this  description,  purely  bony,  and  liable  to 
be  changed  periodically,  are  called  deciduous  horns,  or  antlers. 

A  third  kind  of  horns  met  with  in  the  goat,  sheep,  &c.,  consists 
of  a  bony  core  covered  with  a  case  of  elastic  substance  (fiorn). 
Horns  of  this  description  never  fall  off,  but  continue  to  grow 
during  the  whole  life  of  the  animal :  these  are  called  hollow  Iwrns. 

RUMINANTS  HAVING  HORNS  PERMANENTLY  COVERED  WITH 

HAIRY  SKIN. 


FIG.  431.— GIRAFFE. 

The  Giraffe  (Camelopardalis)  is  distinguished  from  all  other  Ruminants 
by  the  horns,  which  are  of  a  conical  shape  and  always  covered  with  a  hairy 


STAGS. 


39* 


skin ;  they  are  never  shed,  and  exist  in  both  sexes.  This  animal  is  destined 
to  browse  upon  the  foliage  and  young  shoots  of  trees  at  a  height  far  greater 
than  any  other  animal  can  reach.  When  standing  on  the  ground  in  its  wild 
state,  it  measures,  when  full  grown,  seventeen  feet  from  the  top  of  its  head  to 
the  soles  of  its  fore  feet.  At  first  view,  its  fore  legs  appear  twice  as  long  as 
the  hinder;  but  this  results  chiefly  from  the  extraordinary  height  of  the  shoul- 
ders. It  is  of  a  gentle  disposition,  and  lives  on  the  leaves  of  the  acacia-trees 
in  the  south  of  Africa,  which  it  gathers  by  means  of  its  prehensile  tongue. 

RUMINANTS  WITH   DECIDUOUS  HORNS. 

The  Stags  (Cervus).  This  genus  includes  all  Ruminants  whose  males 
have  deciduous  horns  on  the  head ;  but  these  horns  are  (with  the  single  ex- 
ception of  the  reindeer)  always  wanting  in  the  female.  All  these  animals  are 


extremely  fleet  in  running ;  their  limbs  are  long  and  slender,  the  body  light, 
the  coat  clean  and  shining ;  in  general,  they  are  remarkable  for  the  beauty  and 
elegance  of  their  forms.  Ordinarily  they  shed  their  horns  in  spring. 

THE  RUMINANTS  WITH  HOLLOW  HORNS 

are  extremely  numerous,  and  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  divide 
them  into  genera  from  characters  of  slight  importance.  T.o  this 
section  belong 


392 


QUADRUPEDS. 


The  Antelopes  (Antelope].  These  creatures  very  much  resemble  stags 
in  the  elegance  of  their  shape  and  symmetrical  proportions.  Of  a  restless 
and  timid  disposition,  they  are  exceedingly  watchful,  of  great  vivacity,  and 
remarkably  swift  and  agile ;  their  boundings  are  inconceivably  light  and 
elastic.  Their  horns,  whatever  shape  they  assume,  are  round  and  ringed  : 
in  some  species  they  are  straight,  in  others  curved  and  spiral.  In  some  the 
females  have  no  horns,  in  others  they  are  common  to  both  sexes.  They  all 


FIG.  433. — ANTELOPE. 

possess  a  most  delicate  sense  of  smell ;  their  eyes  are  proverbially  bright  and 
beaming  ;  and  so  fleet  are  they,  that  the  hunter  is  often  obliged  to  call  in  the 
aid  of  a  falcon,  trained  for  that  purpose,  to  arrest  their  course,  so  that  even 
his  greyhounds  may  have  a  chance  of  overtaking  them.  They  mostly  inhabit 
torrid  regions  or  the  hottest  parts  of  the  temperate  zone,  frequenting  cliffs  or 
ledges  of  rock,  or  traversing  vast  untrodden  wildernesses.  Africa  appears  to 
be  their  great  nursery.  Many  kinds  are  natives  of  Asia;  but  it  is  remarkable 
that,  notwithstanding  the  warmth  of  South  America,  so  well  suited  to  their 
nature,  only  a  single  species  of  antelope  is  to  be  found  in  any  part  of  the  New 
World.. 

The  Goats  (Capra)  have  their  horns  directed  upwards  and  backwards; 


SHEEP. 


393 


their  chin  is  generally  furnished  with  a  long  beard,  and  their  forehead  con- 
cave.   All  these  animals  are  robust,  capricious,  and  of  wandering  habits. 


FIG.  434.— GOAT. 


FIG.  435.— SHEEP  OF  PALESTINE. 


The  genus  Sheep 
(Oms]  is  composed  of 
animals  whose  horns  are 
directed  at  first  back- 
wards, and  then  incline 
spirally  more  or  less  for- 
wards. They  have  no 
beard,  and  their  forehead 
is  convex.  They  are  so 
well  known  as  to  require 
no  description. 

The  Argali  (Ovis  Am- 
111011]  is  generally  considered 
as  the  parent  stock  of  all  our 
varieties  of  domestic  sheep. 
It  is  found  in  great  num- 
bers in  Kamtschatka,  and 
on  the  highest  mountains  of 
Barbary,  of  Corsica,  and  of 
Greece'  It  is  an  agile,  rc- 
tive  animal,  with  a  very  de- 
licate sense  of  smell,  and  is 
captured  with  difficulty;  its 
flesh  is  much  esteemed. 
The  argalis  prefer  moun- 
tainous district?,  and  livv 
in  dry  and  wild  places, 


394 


QUADRUPEDS. 


where  they  feed  on  coarse  grass  and  the  shoots  of  young  trees.  They  are  very  injurious 
in  forests.  Their  milk  is  useful  as  an  article  of  food,  and  the  flesh  of  the  young  is 
eaten. 


FIG.  436  —HEAD  OF  THE  ARGALI  OR  WILD  SHEEP. 

The  genus  Ox  (Bos)  has  the  horns  directed  sideways,  and  then  twining 
upwards  or  forwards  in  form  of  a  crescent.  They  are  all  large  animals,  with 
a  broad  muzzle,  low  stature,  and  stout  legs.  They  are  also  distinguished  by 
a  fold  of  skin  that  hangs  beneath  the  neck,  which  is  called  the  dewlap.  They 
delight  in  moist  and  marshy  localities,  and  are  slow  and  heavy  in  their  move- 
ments. 


FIG.  437.— INDIAN  Ox. 

The  Common  Ox  (Bos  Taw-its']  is  too  well  known  to  need  description.    As  power- 
ful as  he  is  docile,  the  ox  is  of  great  use  in  domestic  economy.      He  draws  waggons 


BUFFALO. 


395 


and  ploughs ;  his  flesh  is  eaten  both  fresh  and  salted.  By  boiling,  his  skin  becomes 
glue;  by  tanning,  it  is  converted  into  leather,  which  is  chiefly  manufactured  into  shoes; 
the  hair  is  mixed  with  mortar,  and  the  horns  are  converted  into  combs,  spoons,  drink  - 
ing-cups,  and  various  other  utensils.  His  fat  makes  candles ;  from  his  blood  is  obtained 
Prussian  blue,  and  from  his  intestines  goldbeaters'-skin;  while  the  milk  of  the  cow  yields 
us  cream,  butter,  and  cheese. 

The  Auroch.  (Bos  Cms)  is  the  largest  quadruped  belonging  to  Europe.  It  is  dis- 
tinguished from  the  domestic  ox  by  its  arched  prominent  forehead,  rather  broad  than 
high,  by  the  height  of  its  legs,  and  by  an  additional  pair  of  ribs.  It  is  evident,  there- 
fore, that  it  cannot  be  the  original  stock  of  our  horned  cattle.  It  is  a  fierce  animal, 
at  present  confined  to  the  great  marshy  forests  of  Lithuania  and  of  the  Caucasus,  but 
formerly  spread  over  all  the  temperate  parts  of  Europe. 


FIG.  438.— AMERICAN  BISON. 

The  Bison,  or  American  Buffalo  (Bos  Atncricanns),  is  smaller  than  the 
auroch,  but  larger  than  the  domestic  bull.  His  limbs  and  tail  are  short,  the  fore  part 
of  his  body  very  thick  and  strong,  but  the  croup  comparatively  feeble ;  he  carries  a 
fleshy  lump  between  the  shoulders,  which  is  considered  a  delicacy.  His  head  is  large, 
his  horns  are  round,  short,  almost  straight,  and  set  wide  apart  at  the  base.  A  thick 
curly  wool  of  a  brownish-black  colour,  which  in  winter  grows  very  long,  covers  his  head, 
neck,  and  shoulders,  while  the  rest  of  his  body  is  clothed  with  smooth  black  hair. 
Although  heavy  in  appearance,  he  is  very  swift,  and  of  a  savage  disposition,  but  may 
be  tamed  if  taken  young.  These  animals  live  together  in  great  herds  on  the  vast  open 
savannahs  and  prairies  of  North  America,  and  abound  near  the  sources  of  the  Missouri 
and  Mississippi' rivers,  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  salt  marshes. 

The  Buffalo  (Bos  biibalns)  is  originally  from  India,  but  has  become  naturalized  in 
Egypt,  Italy,  and  Greece ;  its  forehead  is  convex,  higher  than  it  is  wide,  and  the  horns 
are  marked  in  front  by  a  longitudinal  ridge.  It  is  less  docile  than  the  ox,  but  more 
robust  and  more  easily  fed.  Its  skin  is  converted  into  a  strong,  durable  kind  of  leather, 
and  the  horns  are  of  a  very  fine  grain  and  susceptible  of  high  polish.  The  buffalo  likes 
to  wallow  in  the  mud  ;  he  is  an  excellent  swimmer,  and  sometimes  dives  to  a  depth  of 
ten  or  twelve  feet,  to  tear  up  with  his  horns  aquatic  plants.  This  creature  is  with  diffi- 
culty subjugated,  has  great  strength,  and  prefers  marshy  places  and  coarse  plants,  which 
the  ox  cannot  live  on.  There  is  a  race  of  buffaloes  in  India,  the  horns  of  which  measure 
ten  feet  from  tip  to  tip. 

The  Cape  Buffalo  (Bos  Citfer)  has  very  large  horns  directed  sideways  and  up- 


396 


QUADRUPEDS. 


FIG.  439.— CAPE  BUFFALO. 

wards,  flat,  and  so  broad  at  their  base  that  they  nearly  cover  all  the  forehead.     It  is  a 
very  large  animal,  extremely  ferocious,  and  inhabits  the  woods  of  Caffraria. 


FIG.  440.—  YAK. 


The  Yak  (Bos  grunniens},  Grunting  Cow,  or  Horse-tailed  Buffalo,  is  a  small  species, 
having  its  tail  entirely  covered  with  long  hairs  like  those  of  the  horse.  This  tail  still 
constitutes  the  standard  used  among  the  Turks  to  distinguish  their  superior  officers. 


RODENTS.  397 


FIG.  441.— MUSK  Ox. 

The  Musk  Ox  (Bos  moschatus]  inhabits  the  most  northern  parts  of  America,  under 
the  polar  circle,  and  climbs  rocks  almost  as  well  as  a  goat.  The  horns  meet  at  their 
base  in  front  of  their  forehead,  almost  in  a  straight  line.  It  stands  low,  and  is  covered 
with  tufted  hair  that  reaches  to  the  ground.  It  diffuses  a  strong  smell  of  musk,  with 
•which  its  flesh  is  always  impregnated.  The  Esquimaux  make  caps  of  the  tail,  the  hairs 
of  which,  falling  over  their  face,  defend  them  from  the  mosquitoes. 

ORDER  RODEXTIA.* 

The  Quadrupeds  that  have  hitherto  occupied  our  attention,  all 
of  them  herbivorous,  have  derived  their  food  either  from  the  grass 
of  the  fields  or  the  foliage  of  trees,  for  the  mastication  of  which 
their  teeth  are  admirably  adapted.  The  animals  that  next  pre- 
sent themselves  are  constructed  for  devouring  less  practicable 
materials.  They  live  principally  upon  the  harder  parts  of  vege- 
tables, the  bark,  the  roots,  the  woody  stems,  and  even  the  nuts 
and  stony  seeds,  and  are,  consequently,  provided  with  incisor 
teeth  adapted  to  gnaw  and  reduce  to  fragments  the  tough  and 
resisting  substances  upon  which  they  feed.  These  gnawing 
or  rodent  teeth  consist  of  four  large  incisors,  two  of  which  are 
situated  in  the  front  of  each  jaw;  they  are  separated  from  the 
grinders  by  a  wide  space  devoid  of  teeth,  and  are  neither  adapted 
for  seizing  living  prey  nor  cutting  flesh,  but  are  shaped  like 

*  Rodo, 


39S 


QUADRUPEDS. 


chisels,  and  are  thus  fitted  for  chipping  off  and  destroying  piece- 
meal the  hardest  and  most  intractable  materials.  In  order  that 
they  may  be  bette'r  capable  of  such  employment,  these  chisel- 
teeth  are  provided  in  front  with  a  thin  layer  of  enamel,  hard  as 
the  hardest  steel,  whilst  behind,  they  are  composed  of  a  much 
softer  material  called  ivory,  so  that  they  always  present  a  sharp 
cutting  edge.  These  teeth  are  constantly  growing  from  the  pulpy 
core  at  their  base ;  but  as  those  of  the  upper  jaw  meet  those  of 
the  lower  at  their  tips,  they  are  perpetually  worn  away  by  their 
action  upon  each  other  and  upon  the  hard  food  which  they  arc 
formed  for  nibbling,  so  that  the  wearing  away  of  the  extremities 
and  the  growth  from  the  bases  balance  each  other  with  exact  pre- 
cision. When,  however,  by  accident,  an  opposing  incisor  is  lost,  or 

when  by  thedistorted  union 
of  a  broken  jaw  the  lower 
incisors  no  longer  meet  the 
upper  ones,  as  sometimes 
happens  to  a  wounded 
hare,  the  incisors  grow  un- 
til they  project  like  the 
tusk  of  an  elephant.  The 
Rodents  are  all  timid  and 
feeble,  trusting  for  self- 
protection  to  flight  or  con- 

FIG.  442.-  SKULL  OF  PORCUPINK.  cealment.      The   prey  of 

ferocious  beasts  and  birds 

and  reptiles,  their  fertility,  by  a  wise  provision,  counterbalances 
their  annual  diminution.  Spread  over  the  earth  from  the  equator 
to  the  coldest  latitudes,  they  tenant  rocks  and  mountains,  plains 
and  woods,  and  often  devastate  the  cultivated  domains  of  man. 
About  half  of  the  Mammals  known  belong  to  this  Order,  which 
contains  above  six  hundred  species.  Of  these,  three  hundred 
and  six  are  of  the  family  Miirida  (Rats  and  Mice),  while  the 
Squirrels  (Sciurida)  contain  exactly  half  that  number.  Fifteen 
species  are  enumerated  by  Professor  Bell  as  belonging  to  the 
British  Isles.  The  Rodentia  are  classed  as  in  the  table  (p.  399). 

The  Beavers  (Castor)  are  distinguished  from  all  other  Rodents  by  their 
tail,  which  is  horizontally  flattened,  of  a  nearly  oval  form,  and  covered  with 
scales.  They  have  five  toes  on  every  foot,  and  those  of  the  hinder  feet  are 
webbed. 

The  Beaver  (Castor  Fiber}*  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  most  solitary  parts  of  North 
*  Fiber,  an  old  name  for  the  beaver,  now  used  as  the  specific  name. 


RODENTIA. 


399 


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400  QUADRUPEDS. 


America.  It  is  also  met  with  in  Siberia  and  Norway.  These  animals  are  always  found 
in  the  vicinity  of  rivers  and  lakes :  in  the  summer  they  inhabit  burrows,  which  they  dig 
along  the  shores,  but  in  winter  they  retire  into  huts,  constructed  with  the  greatest  care, 
on  the  banks  or  in  the  midst  of  the  water.  In  constructing  these  habitations  they  gene- 
rally choose  the  deepest  pools,  which  are  not  likely  to  be  frozen  to  the  bottom ;  and 
they  prefer  running  streams,  which  enable  them  to  cut  the  wood  necessary  for  their 
building  above  the  spot  where  they  work,  and  then  the  current  carries  it  where  it  is 
required.  If  the  waters  are  stagnant  they  at  once  commence  their  houses,  but  if  it  is 


, 

,, 

~  x     <TTan?Mnu.r  '  •'* " 


FIG.  443. — BEAVER. 

running  they  assemble  together,  often  two  or  three  hundred  in  a  gang,  and  first  form  a 
shelving  dam  or  dyke  to  maintain  the  water  at  an  equable  height.  This  dam  is  formed 
of  branches  interlaced  with  each  other ;  the  intervals  between  them  being  filled  with 
stones  and  mud,  and  plastered  over  with  a  thick  solid  coat.  It  is  commonly  ten  or 
twelve  feet  thick  at  the  base,  and  is  sometimes  of  very  considerable  extent,  so  that  at 
the  expiration  of  a  few  years  it  is  usually  covered  with  vegetation,  and  thus  converted 
into  a  substantial  hedge.  The  dam  being  finished,  they  separate  into  small  parties, 
and  set  about  the  construction  of  their  huts,  which  are  built  against  the  dam,  but  with 
less  solidity.  Each  hut  accommodates  two  or  three  families ;  it  has  two  storeys,  the 
upper  one  being  dry,  for  the  residence  of  the  animals,  the  lower  one  under  water,  for  the 
store  of  bark  upon  which  they  feed.  The  entrance  to  this  habitation  is  always  under 
water.  Their  work  is  carried  on  in  the  night  only,  but  with  astonishing  rapidity. 

The  Rats  (Mus}.  This  extensive  genus  is  composed  of  a  great  number  of 
small  Rodents,  which  resemble  our  common  rats  in  the  most  important  points 
of  their  economy.  Their  front  paws  have  generally  four  toes  and  a  tubercle 
representing  a  thumb ;  the  hinder  feet  have  five  complete  toes.  Most  of  them 
live  in  holes.  The  species  are  very  numerous :  amongst  them  we  can  only 
notice 

The  Musk-Rat  of  Canada  (Mns  Zibdicus],  of  the  size  of  a  rabbit,  and  of  a 
reddish-grey  colour.  These  animals  in  winter  construct  a  hut  of  clay  on  the  ice,  where 
they  live  in  great  numbers. 


It  ATS.  401 

' '  The  solid  structure,  framed  with  twisted  reeds, 
Plaster'd  with  mud,  and  intermix'd  with  weed 
Four  cubits  measures  in  its  space  around, 
Raised  like  a  little  turret  from  the  ground. 
At  top  a  rounded  cupola  or  dome 
Twelve  inches  thick,  roofs  in  this  wintry  home ; 
Here  with  their  young  whole  families  repose, 
Whilst  gather'd  o'er  them  rest  the  winter's  snows. 

The  \Vater-Rat  (Mus  amphibiits}  is  somewhat  larger  than  the  common  rat,  of  a 
deep  greyish-brown  colour,  with  the  tail  as  long  as  the  body.  It  inhabits  the  banks  of 
streams,  and  digs  in  marshy  grounds  to  look  for  roots :  it  is  but  an  indifferent  swfmmer 
and  diver. 


FIG.  444. — WATER -RAT 


The  Lemming's  (Mus  lemmus),  a  northern  species,  the  size  of  a  rat,  with  fur  diver- 
sified with  yellow  and  black,  are  very  celebrated  for  the  migrations  they  make  from 
time  to  time  in  innumerable  troops.  They  are  said  to  march  in  a  straight  line,  neither 
river,  mountain,  nor  any  other  obstacle  arresting  their  passage,  while  they  carry  devasta- 
tion into  all  the  lands  through  which  they  pass.  Their  usual  habitat  seems  to  be  the 
shores  of  the  Icy  Sea.* 

The  Dormice  ( Myoxns — rat  with  a  pointed  nose)  are  pretty  little  animals,  with  a 
soft  fur,  a  hairy  or  even  tufted  tail,  and  animated  look.  They  live  on  trees  and  feed  on 
fruits  :  they  pass  the  winter  in  a  deep  lethargic  sleep,  rolled  up  into  a  ball. 

The  Rats  (Mus  rattus],  properly  so  called,  feed  chiefly  on  vegetable  substances,  such 
as  grains  and  roots ;  but  they  also  devour  flesh,  and  when  forced  by  hunger  they  mingle 
in  fierce  battle  and  devour  each  other. 

The  Hamsters  (Mus  criatits)  have  the  same  kind  of  teeth  as  the  rats,  but  their 
tail  is  short,  and  the  sides  of  the  mouth  are  furnished  with  wide  sacs  or  cheek-pouches, 
sen-ing  to  transport  the  grain  which  they  carry  to  the  subterranean  abode. 

The  Harvest  Mouse  (Mus  messorius)  is  the  smallest  of  our  native  Rodentia.  Its 
nest  is  a  structure  which,  in  neatness  and  beauty,  may  be  compared  with  the  productions 

26 


QUADRUPEDS. 


FIG.  445.— DORMICE. 


FIG.  446.— NEST  OF  THE  HARVEST  MOUSE. 


of  birds.  It  is  usually  composed  of  blades 
of  grass,  woven  into  a  globular  form  about 
as  large  as  a  cricket-ball,  and  so  compact 
that  it  may  be  rolled  across  a  table  without 
injury.  It  is  affixed  to  the  stems  of  weeds, 
or,  as  in  the  engraving,  to  the  stalks  of 
growing  corn. 

The  Marmots  (Aretomys)*  have 
short  tails,  short  legs,  and  a  broad  flattened 
head.  They  pass  the  winter  in  lethargy, 
in  deep  holes,  the  entrance  of  which  they 
stop  with  hay;  they  are  sociable  little 
creatures,  and  easily  tamed. 

The  Squirrels  (Sciurus)^  are  at 
once  recognized  by  their  long  bushy 
tails:  their  head  is  large,  their  eyes 
projecting  and  animated,  and  their 
form  light.  They  are  all  remarkable 
for  their  activity,  live  on  trees,  and 
feed  upon  fruits.  They  are  divided 
into  Squirrels,  properly  so  called,  and 
Flying  Squirrels. 

The  Common  Squirrels  (Sdurus 

vulgaris)  are  lively,  graceful  little  animals, 
that  inhabit  woods,  and  make  their  nests 
upon  the  highest  parts  of  the  loftiest  trees. 
They  build  them  in  a  spherical  form,  of 


:  &PKTOS,  arctos,  a  bear;  j*Cs,  mus,  a  rat:  bear-rat.  f  Sciurus,  a  squirrel. 


SQUIRRELS. 


403 


FIG.  447.— SQUIRREL. 

flexible  twigs  and  moss,  leaving  an  opening  in  the  upper  part,  which  they  take  care  to 
cover  with  a  sort  of  conical  roof  to  keep  out  the  rain.  In  this  nest  they  pass  a  part  of 
the  day.  In  the  evening  they  are  gay  and  full  of  sport,  jumping  from  branch  to  branch, 
and  uttering  a  pretty  sharp  whistle.  During  the  summer  squirrels  are  busy  in  storing  up 
food  for  the  winter.  The  trunk  of  a  hollow  tree  is  their  usual  storehouse,  to  which  they 
have  recourse  when  fresh  food  grows  scarce. 


FIG.  448.— ROCKY  MOUNTAIN  FLYING  SQUIRREL. 


20 — 2 


404 


QUADRUPEDS. 


The  Flying1  Squirrels  (Pteromys}*  have  on  each  side  of  the  body  a  prolongation 
of  their  skin,  extending  between  the  fore  and  hind  legs,  and  forming  a  parachute,  by 
the  aid  of  which  these  creatures  make  extended  leaps.  One  species  is  found  in  the 
forests  of  Poland  and  Russia,  and  another  in  North  America. 

The  Porcupines  (Hystrix}  are  known  at  the  first  glance  by  the  sharp 
spines  with  which  they  are  armed.  They  live  in  burrows,  and  have  many  of 
the  habits  of  rabbits. 

The  Common  Porcupine  (Hystrix  cristata}  is  larger  than  a  hare.  The  spines 
upon  its  back  are  strong  and  very  long ;  there  is  a  mane  of  long  hair  on  the  head  and 
neck ;  the  tail  is  short,  and  provided  with  two  open  tubes  that  make  a  noise  when  the 
animal  shakes  them.  The  porcupine  avoids  inhabited  places,  and  selects  for  its  retreat 
stony  arid  hillocks  with  a  southern  aspect,  in  the  declivities  of  which  it  excavates  deep 


FIG.  449. — AFRICAN  PORCITINE. 

holes  with  many  outlets,  where  it  lives  in  profound  solitude  and  great  security.  It 
passes  the  day  concealed  at  the  bottom  of  its  burrow,  and  provides  for  its  wants  during 
the  night  only.  Its  chief  food  consists  of  berries,  fruits,  buds,  roots,  &c.  For  the  por- 
cupine winter  is  a  time  of  sleep,  but  its  lethargy  does  not  seem  to  be  very  profound, 
seeing  th|t  it  makes  its  appearance  in  the  first  bright  days  of  spring.  This  species  is 
commonly  met  with  in  Southern  Italy. 

The  Hares  (Lepus)  have  a  very  distinctive  character  in  their  upper  incisors, 
which  are  double;  that  is  to  say,  each  of  them  has  a  smaller  one  behind  it. 
They  have  five  toes  before  and  four  behind.  The  interior  of  their  mouth  and 
the  under  part  of  their  feet  are  hairy  like  the  rest  of  the  body. 

The  Common  Hare  (Lepus  timidus]  is  of  a  yellowish  grey,  the  ears  one-sixth 
longer  than  the  head,  ash-coloured  behind,  and  black  at  the  point.  Its  dark  flesh  is 
good  for  food  and  its  fur  is  useful.  It  lives  isolated,  does  not  burrow,  and  sleeps  on 
the  flat  ground.  When  hunted  it  describes  a  large  circle  in  running. 

The  Rabbit  (Lepus cuniculus)  is  smaller  than  the  hare;  the  ears  a  little  shorter  than 

*  irrepbv,  pteron,  a  wing;  [ivs,  mus,  a  mouse  or  rat :  it  inged  rat. 


GUINEA  PIGS. 


405 


the  head,  and  the  tail  shorter  than  the  thigh.  This  animal,  originally  from  Spain,  is 
now  spread  throughout  Europe.  It  lives  in  society,  in  burrows,  in  which  it  takes  refuge 
when  pursued.  Its  flesh  is  white  and  agreeable,  and  differs  considerably  from  that  of 
the  hare.  In  a  domesticated  state  the  rabbit  breeds  rapidly,  and  becomes  varied  in 
colour  and  in  the  texture  of  its  fur. 

The  Rat  Hares  (Lagomys)  *  have  ears  of  moderate  length,  legs  but  little 
different  from  each  other,  and  are  without  a  tail :  they  are  found  in  Siberia. 

The  Cavies  (Hydrockarus]  f  have  four  toes  before  and  three  behind,  armed 
with  large  nails,  and  webbed.  But  one  species  is  known,  namely, 

The  Capybara  (ffydrockarus  capibara\  as  large  as  a  small  pig,  with  a  very  thick 
muzzle,  short  legs,  and  without  any  tail.  It  lives  in  troops  in  the  rivers  of  Guiana  and 
the  Amazon.  It  is  the  largest  of  the  Rodentia ;  the  beaver  only  at  all  approaches  it 
in  size. 

The  Guinea  Pigs  (An&ma)  resemble  capybaras  in  miniature,  but  their 


.,r-f 


FIG.  450. — GUINEA  PIGS. 


feet  are  not  webbed.  We  know  but  one  species,  now  much  bred  in  Europe, 
because  their  odour  is  thought  to  drive  away  rats.  They  are  found  in  the 
woods  of  Brazil  and  Paraguay. 

The  Agoutis  (CMoro/nysjhave  four  toes  before  and  three  behind.  They 
seem  to  represent  our  hares  and  rabbits  in  the  Antilles  and  in  the  hot  parts 
of  America. 

The  Jerboas  (Jerboa).  This  tribe  consists  of  a  small  number  of  Rodents 
that  considerably  resemble  rats.  The  tail  is  long  and  tufted  at  the  end;  but 

*  Xcryw?,  lagos,  a  hare ;  /ius,  mus,  a  rat. 
t  i?5ajp,  udor,  water ;  x°'Pos>  choiros,  a  hog. 


40  6 


QUADRUPEDS. 


\ 


FIG.  451.— AGOUTI. 


they  are  most  remarkable  from  the  structure  of  the  posterior  extremities,  which, 
in  comparison  with  the  anterior,  are  of  immoderate  length.  They  are  met  with 
from  Barbary  to  the  coasts  of  the  Caspian  Sea. 


FIG.  452. — JERBOA. 


SLOTH.  407 


ORDER  EDENTATA.* 

The  teeth  of  quadrupeds  are  simply  mechanical  instruments 
adapted  to  obtain  and  to  prepare  the  food  for  digestion,  and  are, 
consequently,  modified  in  their  construction  in  accordance  with  the 
aliment.  To  animals  which  live  exclusively  upon  the  foliage  of 
trees,  the  possession  of  incisor  teeth  would  be  useless,  and  to  others 
that  feed  upon  such  materials  as  do  not  require  mastication,  reeth 
of  any  kind  would  be  superfluous.  To  quadrupeds  thus  circum- 
stanced, Cuvier  has  therefore  given  the  general  name  of  Edentata, 
apparently  implying  that  animals  so  designated  are  entirely  de- 
prived of  teeth,  as,  indeed,  is  literally  the  case  with  some  species, 
but  in  others  teeth  do  exist,  though  of  a  very  peculiar  structure. 
They  all,  however,  agree  in  having  no  front  or  incisor  teeth. 

The  Order  Edentata,  therefore,  includes  all  quadrupeds  pro- 
vided with  separated  toes,  that  are  without  incisor  teeth  either  in 
the  upper  or  lower  jaw. 

Although  associated  by  a  character  purely  negative,  the  animals 
thus  designated  present  many  points  of  relationship.  Their  toes 
are  enveloped  in  very  large  and  strong  nails,  upon  which  they 
walk  with  difficulty,  and  all  of  them  exhibit  a  slowness  and  want 
of  agility  obviously  caused  by  the  structure  and  position  of  their 
feet.  There  are,  however,  certain  intervals  in  these  relations  by 
which  the  Order  may  be  divided  into  the  following  families : 

The  Sloths  (Bradypus},^  When  on  the  ground  nothing  can  be  more 
awkward,  more  misshapen,  and  more  powerless  than  the  sloths.  Their  short 
ungainly  body  is  supported  on  limbs  of  such  unequal  length,  that  in  order 
to  walk  these  animals  are  obliged  to  lean  on  their  elbows,  and  their  thighs 
are  turned  outwards  to  such  an  extent  that  they  cannot  bring  their  knees  to- 
gether. Moreover,  their  hind  feet  are  united  to  the  legs  in  such  a  manner 
that  they  only  touch  the  ground  by  their  outer  edge,  and  their  toes  are  so 
joined  together  by  the  skin  that  nothing  is  seen  of  them  but  their  enormous 
hooked  nails,  and  these  possess  so  little  movement  that,  at  a  certain  age,  they 
become  completely  soldered,  as  it  were,  to  the  bones  of  the  foot.  When  they 
sit  upright,  which  seems  the  position  least  inconvenient  to  them,  their  mouth 
is  directed  straight  upwards,  so  that  it  is  very  difficult  for  them  to  graze  on 
the  ground ;  and  if  we  add  to  this  the  extreme  slowness  of  their  movements, 
to  which  they  are  indebted  for  the  name  they  bear,  we  might  almost  be  tempted 
to  agree  with  the  expression  of  Cuvier,  that  in  constructing  these  animals 
"  Nature  seems  to  have  amused  herself  by  the  production  of  something  im- 
perfect and  grotesque." 

It  is  not,  however,  upon  the  ground  that  the  habits  of  the  sloth  are  to  be 
criticised :  its  home  is  on  the  trees,  where,  amidst  the  dense  forests  that  border 

*  Edentata,  toothless.       t  fipaSvs,  bradus,  slow,  heavy  ;  TTOVS,  pous,  afoot:  slow-footed. 


QUADRUPEDS. 


FIG.  453. — THREE-TOED  SLOTH  AND  GIANT  AKMAUILLO. 

the  mighty  rivers  of  South  America,  it  lives  entirely  upon  the  foliage,  the  buds, 
and  the  young  shoots.  To  this  singular  mode  of  life  the  structure  of  the  sloths 
is  adapted  with  the  same  consummate  wisdom  and  skill  which  are  manifest 
in  all  other  works  of  God.  The  sloth  spends  his  whole  life  in  trees,  and,  what 
is  more  extraordinary,  not  iipon  the  branches,  but  under  them — he  rests  sus- 
pended from  a  bough,  and  he  sleeps  suspended  from  it.  To  enable  him  to  do 
this,  he  must  have  a  very  different  formation  from  any  other  quadruped.  There 
is  a  saying  among  the  Indians,  that  when  the  wind  blows  the  sloth  begins 
to  travel.  In  calm  weather  he  remains  tranquil,  probably  not  liking  to  cling 
to  the  brittle  extremities  of  the  branches,  lest  they  should  break  with  him  in 
passing  from  one  tree  to  another ;  but  as  soon  as  the  wind  rises,  the  boughs  of 
the  neighbouring  trees  become  interwoven,  and  then  the  sloth  seizes  hol4  of 
them  and  pursues  his  journey  in  safety.  He  travels  at  a  good  round  pace,  and 
as  he  swings  himself  from  tree  to  tree  with  indefatigable  industry,  seems  little 
to  merit  the  commiseration  generally  extended  to  him  by  writers  who  have 
never  seen  him  in  his  state  of  activity. 

The  Armadillos  (Dasypus)*  are  remarkable  amongst  all  other  quadrupeds 
by  having  the  head,  body,  and  often  the  tail,  covered  by  a  hard  stony  coat, 
arranged  in  compartments  something  like  a  mosaic  pavement.  This  substance, 
which  may  be  considered  a  kind  of  agglutinated  hair,  forms  a  broad  buckler 
over  the  forehead ;  a  second,  very  large  and  convex,  over  the  shoulders ;  a  third, 
similar  to  the  preceding,  on  the  crupper;  and  between  these  two  last  there  are 
several  parallel  and  moveable  bands  which  allow  the  body  to  be  bent.  The 

*  8aa6s,  dasys,  hairy ;  TTOVS,  pous,  afoot:  hairy-footed. 


ANT-EATERS.  409 


tail  is  sometimes  furnished  with  successive  rings,  sometimes,  like  the  legs, 
only  with  detached  pieces.  These  animals  have  large  ears,  sometimes  four, 
sometimes  five  toes  on  their  fore  feet,  but  always  five  on  the  hinder.  Their 
tongue  is  soft  and  but  little  extensible ;  a  few  hairs  are  scattered  between  the 


<5^^^r 

,  ^^S^^F^f-"" 

FIG.  454. — WEASEL-HEADED  ARMADILLO. 


plates  of  their  armour  or  over  those  parts  of  the  body  where  these  plates  are 
deficient.  The  armadillos  vary  in  size  from  that  of  a  terrier  dog  to  that  of  a 
hedgehog.  They  are  stout  in  their  body  and  low  on  their  legs  ;  they  dig  bur- 
rows, and  feed  partly  on  vegetables,  partly  on  insects  and  dead  animals.  They 
belong  to  the  warm,  or  at  least  the  temperate,  parts  of  America. 

The  Ant-eaters  (Myrmecopha^a)  inhabit  the  same  countries  as  the  arma- 
dillos, from  which,  however,  they  are  readily  distinguished.  Their  body  is 
hairy,  and  their  muzzle,  drawn  out  into  a  long  cylindrical  tube,  is  terminated 
by  a  small  mouth  entirely  destitute  of  teeth.  In  consequence  of  the  small- 
ness  of  their  mouth,  their  jaws  can  scarcely  be  separated  from  each  other,  nor 
can  the  creatures  use  them  to  seize  or  compress  their  food  ;  but  they  are  pro- 
vided with  a  very  long  tongue,  which,  when  extended,  resembles  a  great  earth- 
worm :  this  they  are  able  to  protrude  to  a  considerable  distance,  and  as  it  is 
always  covered  with  a  viscid  tenacious  slime,  they  use  it  for  the  purpose  of 
catching  the  ants  upon  which  they  feed.  By  the  assistance  of  their  long  and 
powerful  nails,  the  ant-eaters  tear  up  the  nests  of  the  termites  or  white  ants, 
and  at  the  moment  when  these  insects  sally  forth  in  crowds  from  their  retreat, 
protruding  amongst  them  their  viscid  tongue,  seize  them  by  hundreds,  and 
thus  convey  them  into  their  mouth.  When  at  rest,  the  claws,  that  serve  also 
as  defensive  weapons,  are  folded  against  the  wrist,  so  that,  as  the  animal  only 
rests  the  foot  upon  the  side,  its  gait  is  slow.  Some  species  are  furnished  with 
a  prehensile  tail,  by  which  they  suspend  themselves  from  the  branches  of  trees. 
The  largest  of  the  tribe, 

The  Tamanoir,  or  Great  Ant-Bear  (Myrmecophaga*  jubata),  does  not  pos- 
sess this  faculty  ;  it  is  upwards  of  four  feet  long  ;  its  tail  is  furnished  with  long  hairs, 


/j.vp/j.Tj%,  pvpfjt.'riKos,  murmex,  murmekos,  an  ant;  (fra-yew,  phagein,  to  eat  :  ant-eater 


QUADRUPEDS. 


FIG.  455. — GREAT  ANT-BEAR. 

directed  vertically  both  above  and  below.  It  is  a  native  of  Brazil  and  Guiana,  and  is 
said  to  be  able  to  defend  itself  against  the  jaguar.  It  might  seem  almost  incredible  that 
so  robust  and  powerful  an  animal  can  procure  sufficient  sustenance  from  ants  alone  ;. 


FlG.    450. 


but  this  is  not  surprising  to  persons  acquainted  with  tropical  America,  and  who  have 
seen  the  enormous  multitude  of  these  insects,  that  swarm  in  all  parts  of  the  country 


CARNIVORA.  411 


to  such  a  degree  that  their  hills  almost  touch  one  another  for  miles  together.  The 
favourite  resorts  of  the  great  ant-eaters  are  the  low  swampy  savannahs  along  the  banks 
of  rivers  and  stagnant  waters. 

The  Scaly  Ant-eaters  (JManis  )*  differ  from  the  preceding  by  having 
their  body,  limbs,  and  tail  covered  with  thick  scales,  disposed  like  the  tiles  of 
a  house :  these  they  raise,  by  rolling  themselves  up  into  a  ball,  to  defend  them- 
selves against  an  enemy. 

The  Cape  Ant-eaters  (Orycteropus)  f  have  long  been  confounded  with 
the  ant-eaters,  because  they  live  on  the  same  kind  of  food,  have  the  head 
similarly  formed,  and  the  tongue  long  and  extensible ;  but  they  are  distin- 
guished by  having  cheek-teeth  and  flat  nails.  The  structure  of  their  teeth  is 
different  from  that  of  all  other  quadrupeds :  they  are  cylindrical  in  shape,  and 
traversed  with  an  infinite  number  of  little  canals,  like  the  pores  of  a  cane. 
There  is  but  one  species, 

The  Ground  Hog  ( Orycteropus  Capensis}  that  inhabits  burrows,  which  it  digs  with 
great  facility. 

ORDER  CARNIYORA.J 

With  the  exception  of  the  human  race,  and  a  few  domestic 
animals  specially  entrusted  to  the  care  of  man,  no  animal  is  per- 
mitted, in  a  state  of  nature,  to  arrive  at  old  age — that  is,  such  old 
age  as  permits  decline  and  feebleness  to  usurp  the  place  of  strength 
and  vigour.  Man  only,  indeed,  is  capable  of  such  a  privilege,  in- 
asmuch as  he  alone  is  possessed  of  that  foresight  and  intelligence 
which  enables  him,  in  the  days  of  his  youth  and  activity,  to  pro- 
vide for  the  wants  of  his  declining  years  or  trust  to  his  social 
position  for  assistance  and  support. 

Wherever  else  we  look  throughout  the  broad  creation,  violent 
death  awaits  alike  all  living  things.  Do  the  feebler  animals  be- 
tray a  lack  of  cunning  or  a  want  of  speed  ?  The  destroyer  is  at 
hand  ;  the  executioner  is  at  the  door.  Does  the  tyrant  fail  in 
strength  or  courage  to  pursue  its  prey  ?  The  foe  awaits  it,  and 
its  doom  is  fixed.  No  maudlin  pity  interferes  with  this  dread 
duty,  so  that  decay,  disease,  decline,  decrepitude,  are  not  allowed 
to  sully  Nature's  works,  except  where  man,  permitted  for  a  mo- 
ment, interferes.  The  agents  thus  employed  to  destroy  and  live 
upon  the  flesh  of  other  animals  are  grouped  together  under  the 
general  name  of  Carnivora  or  Flesh-eaters,  and  are  the  most 
highly  gifted  and  intelligent  of  the  brute  creation. 

Although  the  epithet  carnivorous  is  strictly  applicable  to  many 

*  Probably  from  "manus,"  a  hand,  on  account  of  the  large  fore  claws,  which  are 

employed  in  tearing  down  the  nests  of  the  termites  or  white  ants. 

•f-  opvKT-ris,  oryctes,  a  digger;  irovs,  pous,  afoot. 

%  Caro,  carnis,  flesh;  voro,  to  devour. 


412 


QUADRUPEDS. 


FIG.  457.-  SKULL  OF  TIGER. 


of  the  preceding  quadrupeds,  yet  their  diet  is  for  the  most  part 
confined  to  small  animals,  such  as  worms  and  insects,  as  the 
general  feebleness  of  their  structure  and  the  arrangement  of  their 
teeth  alike  indicate.  But  in  the  Order  upon  the  consideration 
of  which  we  are  now  about  to  enter,  the  sanguinary  appetite  is 
conjoined  with  strength  necessary  for  its  gratification.  The  Car- 
nivorous Quadrupeds,  properly  so  called,  are  at  once  distinguish- 
able by  the  possession  of  four  large,  long,  and  widely-separated 
fangs,  generally  known  by  the  appellation  of  canine  or  dog-tcctJi, 

the  use  of  which  is  to  seize  and 
hold  fast  their  struggling  prey: 
between  these  there  are  six 
smaller  teeth,  in  the  front  of 
each  jaw,  called  incisors,  while 
the  cheek-teeth  are  either  en- 
tirely constructed  for  cutting 
and  tearing,  or  have  their 
crowns  more  or  less  blunted. 
They  are  more  exclusively  car- 
nivorous in  proportion  as  their 
teeth  are  more  completely  tren- 
chant ;  and  such  as  live  also  upon  vegetable  food  may  be  recog- 
nized by  the  bluntness  of  their  grinders.  Thus,  in  the  cats,  the 
most  bloodthirsty  of  the  race,  the  cheek-teeth  are  flat  and  tri- 
angular, and  their  edges  cut  like  the  blades  of  a  pair  of  shears  ; 
whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  the  bears,  most  of  which  feed  largely 
on  vegetable  substances,  have  nearly  all  these  teeth  adapted  for 
bruising  and  crushing. 

The  teeth  next  to  the  canines  are  named  false  molars ;  to 
these  succeeds  a  tooth  of  great  size,  called  a  laccrator,  and  be- 
hind these  are  others  of  smaller  dimensions,  which  are  generally 
more  or  less  blunted,  called  blunt  molars.  Those  genera  that  are 
provided  with  the  fewest  false  molars  will,  of  course,  have  their 
jaws  proportionately  short,  and  consequently  stronger  and  more 
vice-like  in  their  action. 

But,  besides  these  differences  in  the  teeth  of  the  Larnivora,  they 
differ  remarkably  in  the  structure  of  their  hinder  feet.  Some  of 
them,  in  walking,  place  the  entire  sole  of  the  foot  upon  the  ground, 
and  this  part  is  destitute  of  hair,  whilst  others  walk  only  upon  the 
tips  of  their  toes,  the  hinder  part  of  the  foot  or  tarsus  being  raised 
from  the  ground,  and  hairy  :  the  former  are  called  Plantigrade, 
and  the  latter  Digitigrade  Carnivora;  while  a  third  division, 


BEARS. 


altogether  aquatic  in  their  habits,  and  provided  with  limbs  spe- 
ecially  formed  for  swimming,  have  received  the  name  of  Am- 
phibious Carnivora. 


PLANTIGRADE  CARXIVORA. 

The  Bears  (Ursus}  have  three  large  blunt  molar  teeth  in  each  jaw,  in 
front  of  which  is  a  small  lacerator,  preceded  by  a  variable  number  of  very 
small  false  molars  ;  they  consequently  live  almost  entirely  upon  vegetable 
food,  and  seldom  eat  flesh  by  choice.  They  lay  the  whole  sole  of  the  foot 


FIG.  458.— BEAT;. 


upon  the  ground  in  walking,  which  gives  them  a  heavy,  shuffling  gait,  but 
admits  of  the  body  being  reared  up  and  sustained  in  an  erect  attitude  :  in 
this  posture  the  fore  paws  are  frequently  used  in  defence,  either  to  strike  or 
to  hug  an  assailant  to  death.  The  feet  are  furnished  with  five  toes,  armed 
with  strong  curved  and  blunt  nails.  They  are  generally  large  animals,  with 
thickset  bodies,  clumsy  limbs,  and  a  very  short  tail ;  they  dig  for  themselves 
dens,  or  construct  shelters,  in  which  they  pass  the  winter  in  a  state  of  pro- 
found sleep,  without  taking  food,  and  it  is  in  these  retreats  that  the  female 
rears  her  cubs,  usually  two  in  number. 

The  White  Bear  (Ursus  maritimus]  is  an  animal  of  very  peculiar  habits.  I/- 
lives in  the  frozen  regions  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  where  it  feeds  on  fishes,  seals, 
and  young  whales  ;  nevertheless,  even  this  animal  is  not  essentially  carnivorous,  and 
can  be  brought  to  live  on  bread  alone.  He  swims  and  dives  with  astonishing  facility. 
White  bears  are  sometimes  met  -with  in  numerous  societies,  in  which  they  differ  from 
other  bears,  which  are  always  solitary  :  like  the  rest  of  the  genus,  however,  they  re- 
quire a  retreat  for  the  winter  :  they  content  themselves  with  some  cleft  in  the  rocks,  or 
even  in  a  mass  of  ice,  and  there,  without  preparing  any  bed,  allow  themselves  to  be 


414 


QUADRUPEDS. 


covered  by  enormous  heaps  of  snow :  in  this  way  they  pass  the  months  of  January  and 
February  in  a  state  of  profound  lethargy. 


FIG.  459. —POLAR  BEAR. 

The  Racoons  (Procyoii)*  might  also  be  taken  for  bears  in  miniature,  ex- 
cept that  they  are  furnished  with  long  tails,  are  better  climbers,  and  more 
carnivorous.  They  inhabit  the  forests  of  North  America,  where  they  'live 
upon  eggs  and  small  birds.  They  are  remarkable  for  their  singular  instinct 
of  never  eating  anything  until  they  have  plunged  it  into  water. 

The  Badgers  (Meles)  are  likewise  plantigrade  animals  of  nocturnal  habits. 
Their  tail  is  short,  and  their  toes  much  concealed  by  the  skin  of  their  feet ; 
but  they  are  principally  distinguished  by  a  pouch  situated  under  the  tail,  which 
furnishes  a  fatty  foetid  secretion.  Their  fore  claws  are  very  long,  enabling  them 
to  dig  in  the  earth. 

The  Common  Badgers  (Meles  Europea),  found  in  all  the  temperate  regions  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  lives  at  the  bottom  of  a  tortuous  hole  obliquely  excavated  in  the 
ground,  and  is  about  the  stature  of  a  middle-sized  dog.  Formerly  the  hunting  of  this 
animal  was  a  favourite  sport,  and  it  was  baited  by  terrier  dogs,  against  which  its  jaws, 
armed  with  strong  teeth,  and  its  long  powerful  nails,  enabled  it  advantageously  to  de- 
fend itself.  It  inflicts  deep  wounds,  and,  lying  on  its  back,  fights  with  all  its  claws. 

The  Glutton  (Gtild)  very  much  resembles  the  badger,  but  is  more  carni- 
vorous. It  inhabits  the  arctic  regions,  has  the  character  of  being  very  cruel, 
hunts  by  night,  and  is  said  to  overcome  animals  of  large  size  by  leaping  upon 
them  from  a  tree.  Its  name  has  been  derived  from  exaggerated  accounts  of 
one  species,  the  Wolverine  of  North  America.  It  is  said  not  to  hybernate 
during  the  winter. 

*  Trpo/ciW,  procyon,  one  tvho  snarls  like  a  dog. 


POLECATS. 


iMG.  460. — BADGEK. 
DIGITIGRADE  *   CARNIVORA. 

The  Digitigrades,  as  we  have  seen  above,  are  distinguished 
by  walking  on  the  ends  of  their  toes.  They  may  be  divided  into 
several  groups,  as  shown  in  the  table  on  next  page. 

Those  that  are  provided  with  but  a  single  blunt  molar  behind 
the  lacerator  form  a  very  natural  assemblage,  distinguished  by 
the  name  of  Vermiform  Carnivora,  or  in  English  Vermin  ( Vermes, 
a  worm),  on  account  of  their  long  slender  bodies  and  short  legs. 
They  have  five  toes  on  all  their  feet,  and  exhale  an  odour  more 
or  less  strong,  which  proceeds  from  a  liquid  furnished  by  two 
glands  situated  under  the  tail.  Although  of  small  dimensions, 
these  animals  are  very  cruel,  and  live  principally  upon  the  blood 
of  their  victims.  To  this  group  belong  the  Martens.  Polecats, 
Skunks,  and  Otters. 

The  Polecats  (Putorius)  are  the  most  sanguinary  of  all.  Their  head  is 
round,  and  their  short  muzzle  extends  beyond  their  mouth;  their  ears  are 
rounded,  and  much  wider  than  long;  their  fur  is  thick  and  soft,  their  tail 
long,  and  the  glands  beneath  secrete  a  horribly  stinking  fluid.  Their  mode 
of  life  is  solitary  and  nocturnal.  They  are  found  both  in  the  Old  and  New 
World. 

*  Digitus,  the  toe;  gradior,  I  walk:  walking  on  their  toes. 


416 


QUADRUPEDS. 


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The  Common  Polecat  (Mustela  putorius)  is  brown,  with  yellowish  flanks,  and 
white  spots  on  the  head ;  it  is  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches  in  length,  exclusive  of  the  tail, 
which  is  six  inches  long.  It  takes  up  its  abode  in  the  thatch  of  barns  and  other  unfre- 
quented places,  from  which  it  sallies  forth  at  night  in  search  of  prey ;  it  glides  into  poultry- 
yards  and  mounts  into  dove-cotes,  where,  without  making  much  noise,  it  commits  sad 


WEASEL. 


havoc,  biting  off  the  heads  of  the  sleeping  birds,  and  carrying  them  away.  In  the  country 
these  animals  destroy  great  quantities  of  game ;  they  establish  themselves  in  rabbit- 
burrows,  in  clefts  of  rocks,  or  in  the  trunks  of  hollow  trees,  whence  they  come  forth  by 
night  to  prowl  in  the  fields.  In  the  woods  they  seek  the  nests  of  partridges,  and  even 
climb  trees  in  search  of  prey ;  they  devour  rats,  moles,  and  field-mice,  and  wa^e  a  con- 
stant war  against  rabbits,  which  they  pursue  into  their  holes. 

The  Ferret  (Mustela  furo)  very  much  resembles  the  polecat,  but  its  body  is  more 
elongated  and  slender,  its  head  narrower,  and  its  muzzle  more  pointed  ;  its  colour  is  a 
dun  or  yellowish  brown.  This  animal  is  originally  from  Barbary ;  it  has  become  natu- 
ralized in  Spain,  but  in  this  country  it  is  only  domesticated.  It  is  employed  to  hunt 
rabbits.  When  let  into  a  rabbit-burrow  it  is  muzzled,  that  it  may  not  lull  the  rabbits 
in  their  hole,  but  only  compel  them  to  come  out,  when  they  are  caught  by  a  net  placed 
at  the  entrance. 

The  Weasel  (Mnsttla  rnlgaris]  is  of  a  chestnut-brown  colour  above,  white  below, 
and  in  length  about  six  inches,  with  the  addition  of  an  inch  and  a  half  for  the  tail.  In 
its  general  habits  it  resembles  the  polecat,  and  is  equally  destructive  to  poultry  and 
game.  In  winter  it  usually  takes  up  its  abode  in  granaries  or  in  barns,  frequently 
remaining  there  till  the  spring  to  give  birth  to  its  young  among  the  hay  or  straw;  in 


/>- 


FIG.  461. — WEASEL. 

such  situations  it  wages  war  more  successfully  than  a  cat  against  rats  and  mice,  which 
cannot  escape  because  it  follows  them  into  their  holes.  In  the  spring  it  is  to  be  found 
along  the  banks  of  rivers  and  brooks,  and  conceals  itself  in  thickets,  where  it  catches 
birds.  It  is  generally  by  a  single  bite  through  the  skull,  piercing  the  brain,  that  weasels 
destroy  their  victims. 

The  Ermine  (Mnstcla  crminea}  is  another  species  of  polecat.  Its  body  is  about 
nine  inches  long,  and  its  tail  about  four.  This  little  animal  has  two  coats.  In  winter 
it  is  white,  with  its  tail  tipped  with  black,  and  bears  the  name  of  Ermine ;  but  during 
the  spring  it  changes  to  a  beautiful  brown  above  and  yellowish  white  beneath :  it  is 
then  called  the  Roselet.  It  is  found  in  the  northern  parts  both  of  the  old  and  new  con- 

27 


QUADRUPEDS. 


tinent.  The  winter  skins  are  much  sought  after  as  furs,  and  form  a  considerable  article 
of  commerce. 

The  Martens  (Mustela)  differ  slightly  from  the  true  polecats  in  the  struc- 
ture of  their  teeth  and  their  more  elongated  muzzle.  The  species  are  very 
numerous,  and  are  scattered  over  both  continents :  among  them  we  can  only 
notice 

The  Table  Marten  (Mustda  zibdline),  so  celebrated  on  account  of  the  richness 
of  its  fur.  It  inhabits  the  northern  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  abounds  most  in  the 
mountains  of  frozen  countries,  the  intense  cold  of  which  renders  them  uninhabitable  by 
man.  As  it  is  the  winter  coat  only  that  is  so  highly  prized,  the  pursuit  of  the  sable  is, 
of  all  kinds  of  hunting,  the  most  arduous  and  perilous. 

The  Skunks  (Mephites)*  are  celebrated  for  their  intolerable  stench,  which 
they  diffuse  to  a  great  distance.  They  inhabit  North  America. 

The  Otters  (Lutra)  possess  a  peculiar  physiognomy,  which  prevents  them 
from  being  confounded  with  any  of  the  neighbouring  genera.  Destined  to 
pursue  and  to  feed  on  living  fishes,  they  are  aquatic  animals,  and  furnished 
with  means  of  swift  progression  beneath  the  water.  Their  body  is  long,  but 
flattened,  and  capable  of  much  flexibility  in  swimming.  The  feet  are  broad 
and  webbed,  and  the  tail  flattened  horizontally,  forming  a  rudder.  Their  coat 


FIG.  462.— OTTER. 

is  very  thick,  and  formed  of  two  sorts  of  hairs,  one  silky,  the  other  woolly:  the 
silky  is  long,  stout,  hard,  and  shining,  and  the  hairs  thicker  at  the  point  than 
at  their  base ;  the  woolly  is  short  and  compact,  forming  an  extremely  soft  fur. 
These  animals  live  chiefly  upon  fish,  after  .which  they  dive  with  peculiar  ease 
and  swiftness,  capturing  their  slippery  prey  with  unerring  skill.  The  result  of 

*  Mephitis,  a  noxious  exhalation. 


DOGS. 


419 


their  fishing  is  always  brought  on  land  to  be  devoured,  and  the  head  bitten 
off  as  the  first  mouthful.  They  inhabit  bye  places  and  sequestered  nooks  on 
the  banks  or  in  the  neighbourhood  of  water;  here  they  make  a  bed  of  dry  grass, 
and  remain  concealed  during  the  day :  it  is  only  at  night  that  they  issue  forth 
in  search  of  food. 

The  Sea-Otter  (Mustela  httris)  is  twice  as  large  as  the  common  otter,  and  its 
black  coat,  of  the  vivid  brightness  of  velvet,  forms  one  of  the  most  precious  furs.  This 
species  inhabits  Kamtschatka,  the  most  northern  parts  of  America,  and  the  neighbour- 
ing islands  ;  generally  it  keeps  by  the  sea-side,  and  not  within  reach  of  fresh  water. 

The  second  group  of  Digitigrade  Carnivora  is  characterized  by 
having  two  blunt  molars  behind  the  lacerator  of  the  upper  jaw, 
and  comprehends  the  least  sanguinary  animals  of  this  Order. 
They  are  of  moderately  large  stature,  but  their  courage  does  not 
equal  their  strength,  and  they  generally  feed  on  carrion.  This 
group  includes  the  Dogs  and  the  Foxes. 

The  Dogs  (Canis}  have  their  tongues  smooth ;  their  front  feet  are  provided 
with  five  fingers,  while  the  hinder  have  only  four. 

The  Domestic  Dog  (Ca nisfa miliaris]  is  distinguished  by  its  recurved  tail ;  in 
every  other  particular,  such  as  size,  form,  colour,  and  the  quality  of  its  hair,  it  is  in- 
finitely diversified.  The  conquest  over  this  race  of  animals  is  the  most  complete,  the 
most  wonderful,  and  the  most  useful  ever  achieved  by  mankind.  The  entire  species, 
has  become  his  own  property  ;  every  individual  is  devoted  to  its  particular  master, 
assumes  his  manners,  knows  and  defends  his  property,  and  remains  attached  to  him  till 
death  ;  and  all  this  neither  from  constraint  nor  want,  but  solely  from  gratitude  and  pure 
friendship.  The  swiftness,  strength,  and  scent  of  the  dog  have  rendered  him  a  power- 
ful ally  to  man  against  any  other  animals,  and  were  even,  perhaps,  necessary  to  the 
establishment  of  society.  It  is  the  only  animal  that  has  accompanied'  mankind  over 
the  whole  world. 


FIG.  463.— WOLF. 

The  eyes  of  the  new-born  dog  are  closed,  and  become  opened  about  the  tenth  or 
twelfth  day  after  birth  ;  the  first  set  of  teeth  are  shed  when  it  is  about  four  months  old, 
.and  its  growth  is  completed  in  two  years. 

The  Wolf  (Canis  lupus)  is  distinguished  from  the  dog  by  his  straight  tail  and  his 

27 — 2 


420 


QUADRUPEDS. 


colour  of  tawny  grey.  This  much-dreaded  pest  of  many  European  countries  lives  a 
solitary  life,  and  does  not  associate  with  his  fellows,  unless  pressed  by  hunger,  when, 
becoming  reckless  and  furious,  they  join  together  in  packs,  and  commit  terrible  depre- 
dations among  sheep  and  cattle.  The  bite  of  the  wolf  is  so  ferocious,  that  he  is  said 
usually  to  bring  away  the  flesh  upon  which  he  has  fastened  his  jaws  ;  his  natural  dis- 
position, however,  is  sullen  and  cowardly,  and  it  is  rarely  that  he  ventures  to  attack 
his  equals  in  strength. 

The  Foxes  (Canis  inilpes)  are  distinguishable  from  dogs  and  wolves  by 
their  tail,  which  is  longer  and  more  bushy,  by  their  muzzle,  which  is  more 
pointed,  and  by  the  pupils  of  their  eyes,  which  in  the  day-time  form  a  vertical 
slit.  They  diffuse  a  suffocating  stench,  dig  holes  in  the  earth  wherein  they 
reside,  and  only  attack  animals  much  weaker  than  themselves. 


-=.  , 


The  Common  POX  has  rendered  himself  famous  for  his  tricks  and  cunning.  He 
generally  establishes  his  abode  on  the  edge  of  a  wood  in  the  neighbourhood  of  some 
farm.  If  he  gets  entrance  into  the  poultry-yard,  he  slaughters  all  the  fowls,  and,  load- 
ing himself  with  a  part  of  the  spoils,  hastens  to  hide  his  booty  at  some  distance  ;  he 
then  returns,  and  carries  off  another  portion,  which  he  disposes  of  in  the  same  way, 
taking  care,  however,  to  change  the  place  of  deposit :  this  he  repeats  several  times. 
His  gluttony,  at  times,  will  accommodate  itself  to  much  less  dainty  food.  When  pressed 
by  hunger  he  will  eat  rats  and  mice,  snakes,  toads,  and  lizards,  and  even  content  him- 
self with  vegetables. 

The  Civets  ( Vivcrra)  seem  to  complete  the  chain  of  relationship  between 
the  dogs  and  the  cats.  Like  the  last,  their  tongue  is  rough,  and  their  claws 
retracted  whilst  walking,  so  that  they  are  always  sharp.  These  animals  are 
provided  with  a  pouch  situated  under  the  tail,  containing  a  greasy  substance^ 
that  frequently  exhales  a  strong  odour. 

The  Civet,  properly  so  called  ( Viverra  Civctta],  often  erroneously  named  the 
Musk-Cat,  yields  a  scent  that  formerly  enjoyed  a  high  reputation.  It  is  a  native  of 


CIVET.  421 

Guinea  and  the  central  parts  of  Africa,  but  can  live  in  temperate  and  even  in  cold 
climates,  and  has  been  acclimatized  in  Holland,  where  the  inhabitants  carry  on  a  con- 
siderable trade  in  its  perfume. 


•-^:"S 
FIG.  465.  -Civiir. 

The  Ichneumon,  or  Pharaoh's  Rat  (  r/Vwj  Ichneumon},  is  distinguished  by 
its  large  eyes,  with  pupils  elongated  transversely.  It  is  larger  than  our  domestic  cat, 
but  slender  like  the  weasel,  and  of  a  greyish  colour.  This  animal  is  the  famous  Ich- 
neumon worshipped  by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  probably  on  account  of  the  service  it 
renders  by  destroying  great  numbers  of  the  eggs  of  the  crocodile ;  it  lives,  however, 
upon  all  sorts  of  small  animals,  and  is  kept  in  houses  for  the  purpose  of  killing  mice 
and  other  unwelcome  intruders. 

The  last  group  of  Digitigrade  Carnivora  is  distinguished  by 
having  no  small  teeth  whatever  behind  the  lacerators  in  the 
lower  jaw.  In  this  group  are  found  the  most  cruel,  the  most 
carnivorous,  and,  on  account  of  their  strength,  the  most  formid- 
able of  the  tribe.  They  have  been  separated  into  two  genera, 
the  Hyaenas  and  the  Cats. 

The  Hyaenas  (ffycrna)  are  distinguishable  from  the  cats  by  having  only 
four  toes,  both  on  their  front  and  hind  feet,  by  their  claws,  which  are  not  re- 
tractile, and  by  the  position  of  their  teeth,  which  are  so  powerful  that  they 
can  crack  the  shin-bone  of  an  ox.  Their  coat  is  rough,  not  thick,  but  com- 
posed of  long  hairs  that  form  a  mane  down  the  middle  of  the  back.  Their 
gait  is  singular :  they  step  out  in  front,  and  always  seem  to  drag  the  hind 
legs  after  them.  These  animals  are  nocturnal  in  their  habits;  they  live  in 
caverns  and  old  ruins.  They  are  exceedingly  voracious,  and  feed  more 
especially  on  dead  carcases. 

The  Cats  (Felis)  are  the  most  formidably  armed  of  all  the  Mammals. 
Their  body  is  lithe  and  agile,  their  spine  very  flexible,  the  limbs  muscular, 


422 


QUADRUPEDS. 


FIG.  466.— HYJENA. 

but  capable  of  free,  rapid,  and  energetic  movements.  The  toes  are  provided 
with  strongly  curved  and  sharp  claws,  which  are  kept  from  being  blunted  by 
a  very  curious  contrivance.  Their  skull  is  short  and  rounded,  and  beset  ex- 
ternally with  long  ridges,  for  the  attachment  of  powerful  muscles  ;  their  jaws, 
which  are  short  and  of  great  strength,  are  furnished  with  teeth  few  in  num- 
ber, but  of  the  most  trenchant  and  formidable  character,  and  move  upon  each 
other  with  a  vertical  cutting  action.  Their  tongue  is  covered  with  numerous 
horny  spines,  set  in  close  array,  and  directed  backwards,  so  as  to  form  a  kind 
of  rasp,  with  which  the  animal  scrapes  the  flesh  on  which  it  is  feeding  from 
the  bones. 

The  mechanism  whereby  the  points  of  the  claws  are  kept  from  injury  is  ex- 
tremely beautiful.  Every  one  who  has  handled  the  velvet  paws  of  a  cat  is 
aware  that,  in  its  ordinary  condition,  the  claws  are  quite  concealed,  but  that, 
at  the  will  of  the  animal,  they  are  forcibly  thrown  forwards.  This  is  accom- 
plished in  the  following  manner:  The  last  joint  of  each  toe,  the  end  of  which 
is  encased  by  the  claw,  is,  when  at  rest,  drawn  back,  either  upon  or  at  the 
side  of  the  preceding  joint,  by  the  force  of  two  elastic  bands,  as  represented 
in  the  accompanying  figure  (Fig.  467  b)  ;  from  this  position,  however,  it  is 
plucked  in  an  instant  by  the  tendon  which  bends  the  toe,  and  which  is  attached 
to  the  base  of  the  claws  (Fig.  467  <:),  so  that  it  is  protruded  ready  for  action 
(Fig.  467  a) ;  when  the  contraction  ceases,  the  claw  again  springs  back  to  its 
place,  and  lies  concealed  beneath  the  hair  at  the  back  of  the  foot.  The  silent 
tread  of  the  cats  is  partly  owing  to  this  structure,  and  partly  to  the  elastic  pads 
with  which  the  foot  is  provided :  these  likewise  serve  to  break  the  shocks  to 
which  their  violent  leaps  would  otherwise  expose  them. 

The  cats  do  not  hunt  or  pursue  their  prey,  but  lie  in  wait  at  the  spots  to 
which  their  victims  are  known  to  resort,  hidden  in  some  covert,  whence  they 


LION. 


423 


spring  upon  the  unsuspecting  animal  with  irresistible  force,  and  with  one 
stroke  of  the  fore  paw  fell  it  to  the  ground. 


«•  c 

FIG.  467.— TOE  OF  Liov.  a.  with  the  claw 
extended  ;  f>,  c,  without  the  skin,  retracted 
and  extended. 


FIG.  468. —SKELETON  OF  LION. 


Foremost  of  this  extensive  genus  stands 


FIG.  469.— LION. 

The  Lion  (Felis  tea),  distinguished  by  its  uniform  tawny  colour,  the  tuft  of  hair  at 
the  end  of  its  tail,  and  the  mane  which  covers  the  head,  neck,  and  shoulders  of  the 
male.  This  is  the  strongest  and  most  courageous  of  all  animals  of  prey.  Formerly  the 
species  was  diffused  over  the  thiee  divisions  of  the  Old  World,  but  at  present  it  seems 


424 


QUADRUPEDS. 


almost  confined  to  Africa  and  some  neighbouring  parts  of  Asia.  The  majestic  air, 
proud  look,  and  noble  gait  of  the  lion  at  once  proclaim  him  monarch  of  the  desert, 
where  he  reigns  supreme  and  uncontrolled.  His  strength  is  prodigious :  with  a  single 
blow  of  his  paw  he  will  break  the  back  of  a  horse ;  he  can  clear  at  a  bound  a  space  of 
thirty  feet,  and  drags  to  great  distances  even  the  largest  bullocks.  His  terrible  roar 
resounds  through  the  mountains  like  rolling  thunder,  and  startles  his  trembling  prey 
from  their  concealment.  This  roar  is  hollow  and  deep,  but  when  infuriated,  he  utters 
another  cry,  not  less  frightful,  but  short,  broken,  and  reiterated.  Nothing  can  be  more 
dreadful  than  the  appearance  of  the  lion  when  he  prepares  for  combat.  He  lashes  his 
flanks  with  his  long  tail,  his  mane  becomes  erect  and  bristling,  enveloping  his  whole 
head,  his  enormous  eyebrows  half  conceal  the  pupils  of  his  flashing  eyes ;  he  bares  his 
teeth  and  shows  his  spine-clad  tongue,  at  the  same  time  protruding  his  claws,  which 
are  as  long  as  a  man's  finger.  The  lioness  is  destitute  of  a  mane :  she  goes  with  young 
five  months,  and  produces  but  one  brood  in  the  year;  her  whelps  are  generally  from 
two  to  four  in  number;  the  parent  nurses  them  with  great  assiduity,  and  attends  them 
on  their  first  excursions  in  search  of  prey. 


The  Royal  Tiger  (Fells  Tigris),  the  scourge  of  India,  is  as  large  as  the  lion,  but 
with  a  more  elongated  body  and  rounder  head,  of  a  bright  tawny  colour  above,  and 
pure  white  underneath,  with  irregular  black  stripes  across  the  back.  Its  strength  and 
the  rapidity  of  its  movements  are  such  that,  during  the  march  of  an  army,  it  has  been 
known  to  snatch  a  horseman  from  his  saddle,  and  carry  him  off  into  the  recesses  of  the 
Avoods,  without  the  possibility  of  rescue.  The  tiger's  mode  of  seizing  his  prey  is  by 
concealing  himself  from  view,  and  springing  with  a  terrific  roar  upon  his  victim,  which 
he  carries  off,  and  tears  to  pieces,  after  having  first  sucked  the  blood.  The  tigress 
produces  four  or  five  young  at  a  litter.  When  robbed  of  her  cubs,  her  rage  knows  no 
bounds:  braving  every  danger,  she  pursues  her  plunderers  even  to  the  very  gates  of 
buildings,  and  when  the  hope  of  recovering  them  is  lost,  she  expresses  her  agony  by 
hideous  and  terrific  howlings. 

The  Jaguar,  or  American  Tiger  [Fdis  onca),  is  nearly  as  large  as  the  Ori- 


LEOPARD. 


425 


ental  tiger,  and  almost  as 
dangerous.  I  lisa  bright 
tawny  colour  above, 
marked  along  the  flanks 
with  four  rows  of  black 
rings,  with  a  black  spot 
in  the  middle  of  each. 
Underneath  it  is  white, 
arked  across  with  black 
tripes.  Some  individuals 
are  black,  on  which  the 
spots,  of  astill  deeper  hue, 
are  only  visible  in  certain 
aspects.  It  swims  and 
climbs  with  ease,  and 
preys  not  only  on  the 
larger  domestic  quadru- 
peds, but  also  on  birds, 
fishes,  tortoises,  turtles' 
eggs,  &c.  It  must,  how- 
ever, be  verv  hard  pressed 

b  IG.    47I-J  AGL-AR.  before  ^  ^.^   att££  man_ 

The  Panther  (Fells  Pardalis)  is  fawn-coloured  above,  white  underneath,  with 
six  or  seven  ranges  of  black  patches  resembling  rosettes — that  is  to  say,  each  composed 
of  an  assemblage  of  five  or  six  simple  black  spots.  It  very  much  resembles  the  leopard, 
which  inhabits  the  same  regions.  It  is  one  of  the  wildest  of  the  feline  tribe,  always 
retaining  its  fierce  aspect  and  perpetual  growl.  The  female  carries  her  young  nine 
weeks;  they  are  born  blind,  and  continue  so  for  nine  days. 


/  V.. .---  ^ 
.V 

FIG.  472.— LEOPARD. 


The  Leopard  (Fells  Lcopardiis]  resembles  the  panther,  but  has  ten  rows  of  spots, 
which  are  of  smaller  size.     Its  habits  may  be  gleaned  from  the  following  anecdote : 
"I  was  awakened  with  a  start  by  an  unearthly  roar  as  of  some  animal  in  extreme 


426  QUADRUPEDS. 

terror  and  agony,  and  saw,  at  a  little  distance,  a  wild  bull,  upon  whose  neck  was 
crouched  a  leopard.  Vainly  the  poor  beast  tossed,  ran,  stopped,  reared,  and  yelled. 
In  its  blind  terror,  it  even  rushed  against  a  tree,  and  nearly  tumbled  over  with  the 
recoil.  But  once  more  anguish  lent  it  strength,  and  it  set  out  on  another  race.  The 
exciting  spectacle  lasted  but  a  minute ;  the  bull  was  lost  to  my  sight,  and  presently 
his  roars  ceased.  Probably  the  leopard  had  sucked  away  his  life,  and  was  now  feast- 
ing on  the  carcase. '» — Du  CHAILLU. 

The  Lynx  (Fats  Lynx),  or  the  Mountain  Cat,  is  remarkable  for  the  brush  of  hair 
that  tips  the  ears.  It  is  about  two  feet  and  a  half  long  to  the  origin  of  the  tail ;  its 
coat  is  red,  spotted  with  brownish  red.  It  is  indigenous  to  temperate  Europe,  but 
has  almost  entirely  disappeared  from  populous  countries.  It  is  still  met  with  in  the 
Pyrenees,  in  the  mountains  of  Naples,  and  in  Africa.  It  climbs  the  highest  trees  of 
the  forest,  and  there  lies  concealed  among  the  branches,  to  watch  the  weasel,  ermine, 
squirrel,  &c.  It  commits  great  havoc  among  flocks,  and  destroys  a  great  number  of 
hares  and  game.  Its  sight  is  so  piercing  that  the  ancients  attributed  to  it  the  faculty 
of  seeing  through  stone  walls ;  it  may,  however,  be  asserted  with  truth  that  it  distin- 
guishes its  prey  at  a  greater  distance  than  any  other  carnivorous  quadruped. 

The  Common  or  Domestic  Cat  (Fclis  Catus)  is  originally  from  the  forests  of 
Europe.  In  its  wild  state  it  is  greyish  brown,  with  transverse  undulating  stripes  of  a 
deeper  colour  above,  and  pale  below,  the  inside  of  the  thighs  and  the  fore  paws  yel- 
lowish, and  the  tail  annulated  with  black.  \Vhen  domesticated  it  varies  in  the  colour,, 
fineness,  and  length  of  its  hair,  as  everybody  knows. 


AMPHIBIOUS   CARNIVORA. 

The  Amphibious  Carnivora  constitute  the  third  and  last 
group  of  flesh-eating  Mammalia.  Their  feet  are  so  short,  and  so 
much  enveloped  in  the  skin,  that  they  are  of  very  little  use  on  dry 


^ 

FIG.  473.— FOOT  OF  THE  SEAL,  a,  SKELETON  OF  THE 

land  ;  but  as  the  intervals  between  the  toes  are  strongly  webbed, 
they  form  admirable  oars.  These  animals,  therefore,  pass  the 
greater  part  of  their  life  in  the  sea,  and  seldom  come  on  shore, 
except  to  bask  in  the  sun  and  suckle  their  little  ones.  Their 
elongated  bodies,  the  flexibility  of  their  spine,  their  hair,  smooth, 
and  tightened,  as  it  were,  against  the  skin,  are  properties  which, 
combined  together,  make  them  excellent  swimmers.  They  are 
divided  into  two  groups,  the  Seals  and  the  Morses. 

The  Seals  (Phoca]  have  their  canine  teeth  of  ordinary  size,  five  toes  on  all 
their  feet,  those  of  the  fore  feet  decreasing  gradually  from  the  thumb  or  great 


WALRUS. 


427 


toe  to  the  little  one ;  while  on  the  hind  feet  the  great  and  the  little  toe  are  the 
longest,  and  the  intermediate  ones  are  the  shortest.  The  head  of  the  seal  re- 
sembles that  of  a  dog,  and  they  possess  the  mild  and  intelligent  countenance 
characteristic  of  that  animal.  They  live  upon  fish,  always  eat  in  the  water, 
and  can  close  their  nostrils  when  they  dive  by  means  of  a  kind  of  valve. 
Seals  exist  in  great  numbers  in  the  arctic  seas,  and  are  the  principal  support 
of  the  Greenlanders  and  Esquimaux  of  Labrador,  who  live  on  their  flesh,'and 
clothe  themselves,  make  their  summer  huts,  and  build  their  boats  with  their 
skins.  The  chase  of  the  seal  is  their  principal  business,  and  success  in  this 
pursuit  forms  at  once  their  fortune  and  their  pride. 


FJG.  474.- HARP  SEAL  AND  WALRVS. 

The  Morses  or  "Walrus  (TricJiccus}*.  resemble  seals  in  their  limbs  and 
general  form  of  their  body,  but  differ  from  them  in  the  shape  of  their  head  and 
teeth.  Their  lower  jaw 'is  without  either  incisors  or  canines,  but  two  enor- 
mous canine  teeth,  or  rather  tusks,  grow  from  the  upper  jaw  and  project 
downwards.  These  remarkable  tusks  are  sometimes  two  feet  in  length,  and 
of  proportionate  thickness  ;  their  chief  use  seems  to  be  to  enable  the  animal 
to  detach  from  the  ground  the  substances  upon  which  he  feeds,  and  to  assist 
him  in  climbing  out  of  the  water  on  to  the  rocks  where  he  sleeps.  The  wal- 
rus inhabits  the  icy  seas.  It  surpasses  the  largest  ox  in  the  thickness  of  its 
body,  which  is  covered  with  a  smooth  and  yellowish  hair,  and  attains  even  to 
twenty  feet  in  length.  Its  oil  is  in  great  request,  and  the  ivory  of  its  tusks  is 
much  employed  in  the  arts. 

*  6pl£,  rpixos,  thrix,  trichos,  hair:  from  the  long  wiry  hair  of  the  muzzle. 


428 


QUADRUPEDS. 


ORDER  INSECTIVORA.* 

When  we  reflect  upon  the  infinite  numbers  of  insects,  and  their 
wide  dispersion,  the  abundance  of  food  they  afford,  and  the  ne- 
cessity of  everywhere  keeping  in  check  their  prolific  legions,  it  is 
by  no  means  surprising  that,  even  among  the  higher  Quadrupeds, 
creatures  are  found  specially  constructed  to  wage  war  with  the 
insect  races. 

The  Shrew,  the  Hedgehog,  and  the  Mole  are  all  familiar 
British  representatives  of  the  families  that  constitute  this  Order. 
They  are  .all  small  plantigrade  animals,  with  short  limbs.  Their 
muzzle  is  more  or  less  lengthened,  and  the  molar  teeth  are  fur- 
nished with  small  conical  points,  a  structure  that  always  indicates 
an  insect  diet. 


FIG.  475. — SHREW. 

The  Shrews  (Sorex)  have  their  feet  formed  for  walking  or  swimming, 
and  are  clothed  with  fur  of  delicate  softness :  they  have  a  general  resemblance 
to  mice,  but  the  snout  is  greatly  lengthened.  They  are  fond  of  the  vicinity 
of  water ;  and  one  pretty  little  species,  figured  above,  is  eminently  aquatic. 
It  swims  and  dives  with  great  rapidity  and  elegance. 

The  shrews  live  in  holes  which  they  excavate  in  the  earth.  They  rarely 
come  out,  except  in  the  evening,  and  live  entirely  on  worms  and  insects. 
Like  many  other  harmless  and  inoffensive  creatures,  they  have  been  falsely 
accused  of  all  sorts  of  iniquities,  more  especially  of  causing  a  disease  in 

*  Insectum,  an  insect ;  voro,  I  devour:  inscct-divourer. 


HEDGEHOG. 


429 


horses  by  their  bite,  and  there  are  few  parishes  that  have  not,  in  former  times, 
had  their  "  Shrew-ash "  as  a  charm  against  witchcraft.  Perhaps  they  owe 
their  bad  character  to  the  circumstance  that,  although  cats  will  readily' kill  a 
shrew,  they  refuse  to  eat  it,  on  account  of  its  disagreeable  odour. 

The  Hedgehogs  (Erinaceus)  are  distinguished  by  having  their  bodies 
covered  more  or  less  exclusively  with  spines  instead  of  hairs.  They  have  the 
faculty  of  rolling  themselves  up  into  a  ball,  and  thus  presenting  only  an  array 
of  prickles  pointing  in  every  direction. 


FIG.  476.— HEDGEHOG. 

The  Common  Hedgehog  (Erinaceus  EnropKiis]  is  well  known  in  the  rural 
districts  of  this  country.  Slow  of  foot,  it  cannot  flee  from  danger;  but  in  the  sharp, 
hard,  and  tough  prickles  of  its  coat  it  is  endowed  with  a  safeguard  more  secure  and 
efficient  than  the  teeth  and  claws  of  the  wild  cat,  or  the  fleetness  of  the  hare.  The 
hedgehog  is  provided  with  powerful  muscles  beneath  the  skin  of  the  back,  whereby, 
on  the  slightest  alarm,  it  is  able  to  roll  itself  up,  so  as  to  enclose  the  head  and  limbs 
in  the  centre.  The  more  forcibly  these  muscles  contract,  the  more  rigidly  do  the  spines 
project  from  every  part  of  its  surface,  so  that  it  cannot  be  touched  with  impunity.  .V 
thoroughbred  terrier  will,  however,  sometimes  succeed  in  forcing  open  the  poor 
"urchin/'  at  the  expense  of  a  bloody  nose  and  sorely  pricked  paws.  The  young 
hedgehogs,  frequently  called  Hedgepigs,  are  born  blind.  The  points  of  the  pricks  at 
the  time  of  birth  already  project  from  the  skin,  but  are  soft  and  flexible.  The  female 
is  a  careful  and  attentive  mother. 

•  The  Moles  (Talpa)  are  everywhere  distinguishable  by  their  subterranean 
habits,  and  by  their  strange  conformation,  which  is  admirably  adapted  to 
their  mode  of  life.  Their  fore  limbs,  very  short,  supported  by  a  strong  and 
vigorous  construction  of  the  shoulder,  and  wielded  by  muscles  of  enormous 
strength,  resemble  broad  hands,  the  palms  of  which  are  directed  outwards  and 
backwards ;  the  ringers  are  scarcely  perceptible,  but  the  nails  at  their  extremi- 
ties are  long,  flat,  cutting,  and  of  great  strength,  wonderfully  contrived  for  tear- 


43° 


QUADRUPEDS. 


FIG.  477. — MOLE. 

ing  up  the  earth  and  casting  it  backwards,  as  the  creature  burrows  through 
the  soil,  an  operation  in  which  it  is  assisted  by  its  long  pointed  head  and  move- 
able  snout.  The  hinder  legs  are  very  feeble,  and  the  animal's  movements  upon 

the  ground  are  as  imbecile  as  they  are 
efficient  underneath  it.  Its  hearing  is 
very  acute,  but  the  eyes  are  so  small, 
and  so  covered  by  the  skin,  that  their 
very  existence  might  be  denied  by  a 
superficial  observer.  The  fur  of  the 
mole  is  very  peculiar:  the  hairs,  instead 
of  projecting  from  the  skin  obliquely 
backwards,  as  in  most  animals,  grow 
perpendicularly  from  the  surface,  so 
that,  like  the  pile  of  velvet,  they  will  lie 
with  equal  smoothness  in  any  direction, 

thereby  enabling  the  animal  to  retreat  with  facility  through  the  narrow  pas- 
sages of  its  subterranean  burrows. 


ORDER  CHEIROPTERA.* 

The  mammiferous  destroyers  of  insects  are  by  no  means  re- 
stricted to  the  surface  of  the  ground,  or  limited  by  their  structure 
to  the  pursuit  of  a  few  beetles  or  grovelling  larvae.  Many,  fur- 
nished with  wings  of  strange  conformation,  are  permitted  to  wage 

*  x€'P>  cheir,  the  hand;  TTTep6i>,  pteron,  a  -wing:  hand-winged. 


BATS.  43I 

war  against  them  even  in  their  own  element,  rivalling  the  very 
swallows  in  their  power  of  flight. 

The  Bats  have  their  arms,  fore-arms,  and  fingers  extremely 
elongated,  and  connected  together  by  a  delicate  fold  of  skin  spread 
over  them,  much  in  the  same  way  that  the  silk  of  an  umbrella  is 
stretched  upon  its  frame,  so  that  they  form  real  wings,  as  broadly 
expanded  as  those  of  birds.  Accordingly,  these  creatures  fly  to 
a  considerable  height  with  great  rapidity  and  with  apparent  ease, 
wheeling  in  every  direction  in  search  of  their  insect  prey,  and  per- 
forming the  most  abrupt  evolutions  to  secure  it.  The  muscles  that 
wield  their  wings  are  possessed  of  strength  proportionate  to  the 
movements  they  have  to  execute,  and  in  the  middle  of  the  breast- 
bone there  is  a  ridge  or  keel  like  that  of  birds,  so  as  to  form  a 
larger  surface  for  their  attachment.  The  thumb  is  short,  and  armed 
with  a  hooked  nail,  whereby  these  animals  suspend  themselves 
from  any  foreign  object,  or  creep  upon  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
Their  hind  feet  are  extremely  small.  Their  ears  are  often  remark- 
ably spread  out,  so  as  to  form,  in  conjunction  with  their  wings,  an 
enormous  extent  of  surface,  which  is  so  sensitive  that  the  bats  can 
direct  themselves  into  all  the  nooks  of  the  gloomy  labyrinths  in 
which  they  reside,  probably  by  feeling  the  impulses  of  the  external 
air.  They  are  nocturnal  animals,  and  in  our  climate  pass  the  winter 
in  a  state  of  lethargy.  During  the  day  they  remain  suspended 
in  their  dark  retreats.  They  generally  have  two  little  ones  at  a 
birth,  which  they  hold  to  their  breast  by  means  of  their  wing- 
like  arms. 

The  Bats  are  divided  into  several  families,  some  of  which  live 
upon  fruits  ;  such  are 

The  Fox-Bats  (Ptcropus)*  common  in  the  south  of  India,  Japan,  Mada- 
gascar, and  Australia.  They  congregate  in  flocks,  and  selecting  a  large  tree 
for  their  resting-place,  suspend  themselves  by  the  claws  of  their  hind  limbs 
from  the  naked  branches.  They  thus  pass  the  greater  portion  of  the  day  in 
sleep;  but  soon  after  sunset  begin  their  nocturnal  flight  in  search  of  food, 
directing  their  course  to  the  forests,  villages,  and  plantations,  where  they  do 
great  damage  by  devouring  indiscriminately  every  kind  of  fruit.  Their  flight 
is  slow  and  steady,  pursued  in  a  straight  line,  and  of  long  continuance. 

The  Spear-nosQd  Bats  (Phyllostomd)^  are  distinguished  by  having  a 
membrane,  like  an  upturned  leaf,  crossing  the  end  of  their  noses.  Their  tongue 
is  capable  of  great  elongation,  and  terminated  by  little  elevations,  which  seem 
to  be  so  arranged  as  to  form  an  organ  of  suction.  All  this  tribe  is  American. 
They  run  on  the  ground  with  greater  facility  than  other  bats,  and  are  accus- 
tomed to  suck  the  blood  of  animals.  To  this  tribe  belongs 

*  Trrephv,  pteron,  a  -wing;  irovs,  pous,  afoot:  iving-footed. 

t  <pv\\6v,  phyllon,  a  leaf;  orfyta,  stoma,  a  mouth :  leaf-mouthed. 


432 


BATS. 


The  Vampire  (PhyUostoma  spectrum},  which  has  been  accused  of  destroying  even 
men.  It  is  said  generally  to  alight  near  the  feet,  and,  fanning  the  victim  with  its  enor- 
mous wings,  to  bite  a  piece  out  of  the  tip  of  the  great  toe,  so  very  small  that  the  head 
of  a  pin  could  scarcely  be'  received  into  the  wound,  yet  through  this  orifice  it  contrives 
to  suck  blood  until  gorged.  It  must  not  be  imagined,  however,  that  the  vampires  are 
exclusively  nourished  by  the  blood  of  animals ;  they  live  on  insects,  after  the  manner  of 
other  bats,  as  has  been  proved  by  inspection  of  the  contents  of  their  stomachs. 


FIG.  479. — HEADS  OF  RHINOLOPHUS  FKKRUM  EQUINUM  AND  MEGADEKMA  FKOXS. 

The  Horse-shoe  Bats  (Rhinoloplws)*  have  their  nose  furnished  with 

membranes  and  crests 
of  a  very  complicated 
description,  occasion- 
ally presenting  alto- 
gether somewhat  the 
figure  of  a  horse-shoe. 
They  inhabit  dark 
caverns,  where  they 
remain  isolated,  sus- 
pended by  their  feet, 
and  enveloped  in  their 
wings. 

The  Common  Bat 

( Vcspcrtilio  pipistrclla]  is 
about  the  size  of  a  mouse. 
Its  body  is  covered  with 
a  skort  dusky  fur,  tinged 
with  red:  the  eyes  and 
the  ears  are  small.  This 
little  bat  makes  its  ap- 
pearance in  the  twilight  of 
fine  summer  evenings, 
frequenting  the  sides  of 


FlG.    480.— PlI'ISTRELLE 


*  pij>,  rhin,  the  nose ;  X60os,  lophos,  a  crest. 


MONKEYS.  433 


Xvoods,  glades,  and  shady  walks,  or  skimming  over  the  surface  of  quiet  waters,  where 
moths,  gnats,  and  other  nocturnal  insects  are  most  abundant ;  but  in  stormy  weather 
it  remains  shut  up  in  the  chinks  and  fissures  of  old  ruins  or  concealed  in  hollow  trees. 

ORDER  QUADRUMANA.* 

There  yet  remains  a  spacious  region  to  be  tenanted  with  fit  in- 
habitants. The  vast  forests  in  many  parts  of  the  world  constitute 
by  no  means  an  unimportant  territory.  Umbrageous  solitudes, 
through  which  the  foot  of  man  has  never  found  a  path,  covering 
whole  countries  with  unbroken  shade,  where  endless  summer 
reigns,  and  fruits  and  flowers  and  foliage,  in  perpetual  succession, 
furnish  inexhaustible  supplies  of  nourishment.  In  these  dense 
woods,  where  giant  trees  are  interlaced  with  creeping  plants,  in- 
numerable Monkeys  find  their  home,  and  spring  from  stem  to 
stem,  and  bough  to  bough,  with  wonderful  alacrity,  making  the 
woods  alive  with  merry  gambollings.  The  great  feature  whereby 
the  Quadrumana  are  distinguishable  is  that  all  their  four  feet  are 
generally  provided  with  thumbs,  which  are  free  and  opposable  to 
the  other  fingers.  Although  a  few  of  them  have  a  considerable 
resemblance  to  the  human  form,  they  progressively  recede  from  it 
until  the  lower  tribes  walk  exclusively  on  four  legs,  like  ordinary 
quadrupeds.  Nevertheless,  the  freedom  of  their  arms  and  the 
structure  of  their  hands  allow  many  of  them  to  imitate  the  gestures 
and  actions  of  mankind  with  ludicrous  exactness.  The  entire  Order 
is  formed  for  living  in  the  trees  of  tropical  forests,  where  the  pre- 
hensile character  of  their  feet  renders  them  perfectly  at  home. 
Here  they  run,  jump,  and  drop  from  bough  to  bough,  or  spring 
from  tree  to  tree,  with  wonderful  agility,  but  poorly  represented 
by  any  feats  of  a  similar  kind  performed  in  a  state  of  captivity. 
A  remarkable  peculiarity  in  the  construction  of  their  limbs,  while 
it  incapacitates  them  for  walking  in  an  erect  position,  admirably 
assists  them  in  climbing.  Their  hinder  hands  or  feet  are  inca- 
pable of  being  brought  flat  to  the  ground,  as  in  man ;  but  when 
endeavouring  to  stand,  the  soles  nearly  face  each  other,  and  the 
body  rests  on  the  outer  edge  of  the  foot ;  their  legs,  too,  are  very 
short,  bent,  and  directed  inwards,  so  that  they  may  be  termed 
bow-legged.  Their  arms,  moreover,  are  of  inordinate  length,  and 
the  fingers  very  long  in  proportion  to  the  thumbs,  so  that  their 
prehensile  paws,  when  compared  with  the  human  hand,  are  ex- 
tremely clumsy  and  inefficient.  It  is  sufficient,  indeed,  to  contrast 

*  Quatour,  four;  manus,  a  hand :  four-handed. 

28 


434 


Q  UADR  UMANA. 


FIG.  481.  — SKELETON  OF  MAN  AND  ORANG. 

the  skeleton  of  man  with  that  of  one  of  the  most  man-like  apes, 
to  perceive  the  dissimilarity  of  their  structure. 

In  their  geographical  distribution,  the  Ouadrumana  must  be 
regarded  as  a  tropical  group.  They  are  found  in  the  forests  and 
rocky  deserts  of  Southern  Asia,  South  Africa,  and  of  South 
America,  where  they  live  in  troops,  and  feed  principally  on  fruits, 
often  descending  to  plunder  the  gardens  and  fields.  In  Africa 
their  range  extends  as  far  south  as  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope ;  a 
species  of  baboon-like  monkey  lives  on  the  rock  of  Gibraltar  : 
this  is  their  most  northern  locality. 


MONKEYS. 


435 


Intermediate  in  structure  between  the  Bats  and  the  lowest 
forms  of  Monkeys  is  a  very  remarkable  race  of  animals,  gene- 
rally known  by  the  name  of 

The  Plying  Cats  (Galeopitheais)*  These  differ  from  the  bats  in  many 
important  particulars :  the  fingers  of  their  hands  are  not  more  elongated  than 
those  of  their  feet,  so  that  the  fold  of  skin  which  occupies  the  interval  between 
the  fore  and  hind  legs  can  do  little  else  than  act  as  a  parachute,  enabling 
these  creatures  to  take  long  sweeping  leaps  from  tree  to  tree.  These  animals 
are  found  in  the  Indian  Archipelago.  They  inhabit  lofty  trees  in  dark  woods, 
to  -which  they  cling  with  all  four  limbs,  and  climb  easily  by  means  of  their 
claws.  During  the  day-time  they  suspend  themselves  like  bats  from  the 
branches,  with  the  head  downwards,  but  at  night  they  rouse  themselves,  and 
make  an  active  search  for  food,  which  consists  of  fruits,  insects,  eggs,  birds, 
&c.  They  are  very  inoffensive,  and  generally  produce  two  young  ones  at  a 
birth. 

As  examples  of  those  Quadrumana  which  in  their  general  aspect 
most  nearly  resemble  ordinary  Quadrupeds  may  be  mentioned 


FIG.  482.—  WHITE-FRONTED  LEMUR. 

The  Fox-headed  Monkeys  (Lemur}.  The  animals  belonging  t&  this 
family  have  thumbs  both  upon  the  fore  and  hind  limbs,  which  are  well  de- 
veloped, and  opposable  to  the  other  fingers  ;  but  they  differ  from  the  monkeys 


ya\er],  galee,  a  iveasel  ; 


,  pithecos,  an  ape. 

28—2 


436  QUADRUMANA. 


in  the  disposition  and  character  of  their  teeth,  which  are  more  or  less  studded 
•with  sharp  points,  indicative  of  their  appetite  for  insects.  Their  muzzle  is 
lengthened  and  pointed,  their  nostrils  are  terminal,  their  feet  thick  and  soft ; 
and  they  are  further  distinguishable  by  having  the  nail  of  the  forefinger  of 
their  posterior  hands  raised  and  sharp-pointed,  while  the  nails  of  the  other 
hands  are  flat.  They  are  all  very  active,  and  have  been  named  Fox  Monkeysr 
on  account  of  the  shape  of  their  heads.  The  Lemurs,  properly  so  called,  ex- 
clusively inhabit  the  island  of  Madagascar,  where  they  seem  to  take  the  place 
of  the  real  monkeys.  They  live  upon  fruits  and  small  animals,  and  some  of 
them  are  trained  to  hunt  like  dogs. 

The  Sloth.  Monkeys  (Stcnops*  tardigradus'Y)  have  acquired  their  name  from 
the  extreme  slowness  of  their  movements.  They  are  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  living 
upon  insects  and  small  birds,  which  they  approach  stealthily  in  the  dark.  They  in- 
habit the  East  Indies. 

The  Marmozets  (Hapale)  *  constitute  a  little  group  peculiar  to  the  New 
World.  They  are  small,  agreeable-looking  animals,  with  a  round  head,  flat 
face,  lateral  nostrils,  and  a  bushy  tail,  which  is  not  prehensile.  On  their  an- 
terior extremities  their  thumbs  are  scarcely  opposable  to  their  other  fingers, 
and  all  their  digits,  except  the  thumb  of  the  posterior  extremities,  are  armed 
with  compressed  nails  pointed  like  claws.  By  the  aid  of  these  nails  they 
climb  trees  like  squirrels,  for  the  conformation  of  their  hands  does  not  per- 
mit them  to  seize  hold  of  branches  like  monkeys. 

The  Monkeys  of  the  American  continent  are  distinguished  by 
having  four  more  teeth  than  those  of  the  Old  World,  making 
thirty-six  in  all ;  their  tail  is  long,  they  have  no  cheek-pouches, 
the  hinder  part  of  their  body  is  hairy  and  unprovided  with  cal- 
losities, and  their  nostrils  are'  situated  at  the  sides  of  the  nose, 
not  beneath  it.  They  inhabit  vast  forests,  and  climb  the  trees 
with  most  surprising  agility.  Their  lengthy  tail  serves  them  as 
a  balancing-pole,  wherewith  to  keep  their  equilibrium  while  leap- 
ing, and  some  possess  the  power  of  wrapping  its  extremity  round 
objects,  and  holding  them  with  so  tenacious  a  grasp  that  the 
animal  can  thus  suspend  itself  from  the  branches  as  with  a  fifth 
hand.  According  to  the  difference  of  the  conformation  of  the 
tail,  the  monkeys  of  America  are  divided  into  two  principal 
groups — 

1.  Those  that  have  the  tail  prehensile,  or  capable  of  being 
twisted  round  an  object,  so  as  to  seize  it  as  with  a  hand,  distin- 
guished by  the  name  of  Sapajous  or  Capuchin  Monkeys 
(Cebus); 

2.  Those  in  which  the  tail  is  not  at  all  prehensile,  constituting 
the  family  of  Sakis  (Pithcda). 

To  the  former  division  belong 

The  Howling  Monkeys  (Mycetes)  §,  which,  from  a  peculiar  conforma- 

*  srev&s,  stenos,  narrow;  6\f/,  ops,  a  face:  narrow-faced,      f  Tardus,  slow;  gradior,. 
/  walk :  slow-walking.      +  a7ra\6s,  hapalos,  soft.      §  /nvKrjT'fis,  mycetes,  a  follower. 


MONKEYS. 


437 


tion  of  their  throats,  are  gifted  with  voices  of  tremendous  power  and  volume 
Their  howling,  as  travellers  tell  us,  may  be  heard  for  half  a  league  around! 
It  is  more  especially  at  sunrise  or  sunset,  or  on  the  approach  of  a  storm  that 
they  make  the  forest  re-echo  with  their  frightful  cries,  and  sometimes,' as  it 
would  seem,  they  have  recourse  to  this  howling  to  drive  away  their  enemies. 
These  monkeys  are  very  common  in  the  great  forests  of  Brazil. 


FIG.  483. — HOWLING  MONKEY. 

The  Spider  Monkeys  (A teles]*  have  the  thumbs  on  their  fore  hands 
either  very  minute  or  entirely  wanting.  Exclusively  arboreal  in  their  habits, 
the  Spider  Monkeys  move  on  the  ground  with  a  vacillating  gait,  dragging 
themselves  along  by  means  of  their  long  fore  arms,  which  they  use  like 
crutches,  the  fist  being  half  closed ;  or  they  walk  in  a  crawling  position, 
sustaining  themselves  on  their  hind  feet  only,  and  balanced  by  their  long 
arms,  and  tail  extended  ready  to  seize  any  object  which  may  help  progression. 
But  among  the  branches  of  the  trees  their  agility  is  almost  equal  to  that  of  a 
bird  :  the  sensitive  tip  of  the  long  tail  lays  hold  of  a  bough  with  the  facility 
and  security  of  a  fifth  hand,  while  its  grasp  is  sufficiently  powerful  to  sustain 
the  weight  of  the  body  as  it  swings. 

The  Monkeys  of  the  eastern  hemisphere  differ  from  the  Ameri- 
can monkeys  in  their  teeth,  which  are  only  thirty-two  in  mumber. 
Their  nostrils  are  placed  close  together,  separated  only  by  a  nar- 
row partition,  and  in  many  species  the  tail  is  entirely  wanting. 
They  may  be  divided  in  accordance  with  the  following  table  : 

,  ateles,  imperfect — in  allusion  to  their  having  only  rudimentary  thumbs. 


435  QUADRUMANA. 


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The  Cynocephali  *  or  Baboons  are  the  most  brutal  and  ferocious  of  the 
entire  race,  alike  formidable  for  their  size  and  strength ;  their  limbs  are  short, 
and  their  usual  mode  of  progression  is  on  all  fours.  In  leaping  they  display 

*  KVWV,  Kvv6s,  kuon,  kunos,  a  dog;  /ce0aXiJ,  cephale,  the  head :  dog-headed. 


MONKEYS. 


439 


FIG.  484. — ORANG-OUTANG,  MANDRIL,  AND  SPIDER  MONKEY. 

considerable  agility,  and  frequent  the  wooded  mountains  and  wildest  rocks. 
They  feed  on  fruit  and  vegetables,  and  do  much  damage  by  pillaging  fields  and 
gardens.  The  Baboons  nearly  all  inhabit  Africa.  To  these  belong 

The  Mandrils  (Fig.  484).  These  are  among  the  most  extraordinary  and 
hideous  creatures  imaginable :  their  colour  is  a  brown  grey,  inclining  to  olive ; 
their  chin  is  furnished  with  a  lemon-coloured  beard,  their  cheeks  are  of  a  bril- 
liant blue,  and  their  nose  red,  especially  near  the  top,  where  it  is  bright  scarlet, 
while  the  hinder  part  of  the  body  is  of  a  deep  violet  tint.  These  creatures 
attain  to  a  very  large  size,  and  are  justly  feared  by  the  negroes  of  the  Guinea 
coast,  where  they  are  common. 

The  Macaques  *  (Macacus]  are  provided  with  callosities  on  the  hinder  part 
of  their  body,  and  with  cheek-pouches,  which  serve  them  as  pcckets  wherein 
they  stow  away  their  food.  Their  muzzle  is  somewhat  prolonged,  and  their 
eyebrows  remarkably  prominent,  so  that  their  whole  physiognomy  is  peculiar. 
When  young  these  monkeys  are  exceedingly  docile,  but  they  become  intract- 
able as  they  grow  old.  They  are  all  furnished  with  a  bag  situated  beneath  the 
skin  of  their  throat,  which  communicates  with  the  larynx  and  can  be  filled  with 
air,  thus  enabling  them  to  utter  peculiarly  loud  and  dissonant  cries.  Their  tail 
is  of  moderate  length,  but  is  of  no  use  to  them  as  a  locomotive  agent 

The  Semnopitheci.t  peculiar  to  the  Eastern  World,  are  remarkable  on 

*  Macaco  is  a  general  name  given  to  monkeys  by  the  negroes  on  the  Guinea  coast  of  Africa, 
f  cefjivbs,  semnos,  solemn  ;  TriBtjKOS,  pithecos,  an  ape. 


440  Q  UADR  UMANA. 


account  of  the  great  length  of  their  limbs  and  their  very  long  tail.  They  have 
callosities  on  the  rump,  but  are  destitute  of  cheek-pouches.  They  are,  more- 
over, furnished  with  a  laryngeal  sac,  whereby,  perhaps,  their  vocal  powers  are 
increased. 

Of  this  race  of  monkeys  the  most  striking  in  its  appearance  is  the  Kahau 
(Semnopithecus  nasica,  Fig.  485),  distinguished  by  the  possession  of  a  nose  of 
very  unenviable  dimensions.  These  monkeys  live  in  Borneo,  where  they  con- 
gregate in  considerable  numbers  every  morning  and  evening  on  the  branches 
of  trees  near  the  river-banks,  and  make  the  woods  resound  with  their  loud  cry 
Kahau )  kahau.  They  are  likewise  said  to  inhabit  Cochin  China. 


rf   / 

~*U/sVy.  •••• 


FIG.  485.— KAHAU. 

The  G-uenons  or  Long-tailed  Monkeys  (Cercopithecus}*  possess  both 
callosities  and  cheek-pouches.  The  species  are  very  numerous,  and  very 
various  in  their  size  and  colour.  They  are  distributed  all  over  the  African 
continent,  live  in  large  troops,  and  commit  serious  depredations  in  cultivated 
places.  Many  of  them  are  easily  tamed ;  they  are  of  lively  disposition,  and 
in  leaping  from  tree  to  tree  display  wonderful  activity. 

The  Magots  (luuus)  have  the  tail  reduced  to  a  mere  rudiment.  The  com- 
mon species,  limits  sylvanus,  covered  entirely  with  a  brownish-grey  hair, 
although  a  native  of  Barbary,  is  met  with  on  the  southern  coast  of  Spain,  and 
has  taken  complete  possession  of  the  most  inaccessible  part  of  the  rock  of 
Gibraltar.  It  is  the  only  animal  of  the  Order  Ouadrumana  that  inhabits 
Europe.  It  is  easily  taught  when  young  to  perform  various  tricks,  and  is  fre- 
quently exhibited  in  our  streets. 

*  fclpjcos,  cercos,  a  tail ;  irldeKOS,  pithecos,  a  monkey. 


MONKEYS. 


441 


The  Gibbons  (Hylobates)*  have  callosities  on  the  hinder  parts  of  their 
bodies,  but  have  neither  a  tail  nor  cheek-pouches.  They  are  found  in  the  re- 
motest parts  of  the  continent  of  India  and  the  adjacent  islands,  where  they 
inhabit  dense  and  impenetrable  forests. 

The  Siamang1  (Simia-\-  syndactyla^)  differs  from  the  other  gibbons  in  having  the 
second  and  third  toes  of  the  hinder  limb  partially  joined  together  by  a  narrow  fold  of 
skin.  These  apes  live  together  in  numerous  bands.  During  the  day  they  remain  silent, 
concealed  among  the  foliage  of  the  trees,  but  in  the  early  morning  and  evening  they 
make  the  woods  to  resound  with  their  discordant  and  frightful  cries.  They  seem  to 
live  under  the  guidance  of  active  and  vigilant  chiefs.  All  take  alarm  at  the  sl'ghtest 
sound  that  they  do  not  understand,  and  escape  into  the  recesses  of  the  forest. 


FIG.  486.— BORNEAX  ORAXG. 

The  OrangS  (Troglodytes)  are  the  only  Ouadrumana  of  the  Old  World 
•which  have  no  callosities  on  their  hinder  parts,  nor  cheek-pouches,  nor  any 
vestiges  of  a  tail.  Their  arms  are  of  inordinate  length  and  strength,  while  the 

*  V\TJ,  ule,  a  wood  or  forest ;  fiaivu,  baino,  to  go  or  traverse. 

t  ffifjAs,  simos,  flat-nosed. 

%  atv,  syn,  together  with  ;  od/cri-Xos,  dactylos,  a  finger  or  toe:  having  conjoined  toes. 


442 


QUADRUMANA. 


FIG.  487.  —  GORILLA. 

legs  are  comparatively  very  short.  To  this  genus  belong  the  so-called  Anthro- 
poid* or  Man-like  Apes.  Of  these  the  most  recently  discovered — 

The  (jcOY]\\.Q,(Trog!odytes-\-  gorilla)  inhabits,  so  far  as  is  at  present  known,  a  district 
extending  to  about  two  hundred  miles  north,  and  the  same  distance  south,  of  the  equa- 
tor, and  ranging,  perhaps,  to  three  hundred  miles  from  the  western  coast  of  Africa.  Of 
specimens  shot  by  M.  Du  Chaillu,  the  largest  male  seems  to  have  been  at  least  six  feet 
two  inches  in  height  ;  so  that,  making  allowance  for  the  shortness  of  the  lower  limbs, 
the  dimensions  of  a  full-grown  male  may  be  said  to  equal  those  of  a  man  of  eight  or 
nine  feet  high  ;  and  it  is  only  in  their  length  that  the  lower  limbs  are  disproportionate 
to  the  gigantic  trunk  :  in  the  thickness  and  solidity  of  their  bones,  and  in  the  strength 
of  their  muscles,  these  limbs  are  quite  in  keeping  with  the  rest  of  the  body.  When  in 
an  upright  position,  the  arms  of  the  gorilla  reach  to  its  knees  ;  the  hind  hands  are  wide 
and  of  amazing  size  and  power.  The  great  toe  or  thumb  measures  six  inches  in  circum- 
ference. The  palms  and  soles,  and  the  naked  part  of  the  face,  are  of  an  intense  black 
colour,  as  is  also  the  breast.  The  other  parts  are  thickly  clothed  with  hair  of  an  iron- 
grey,  except  the  head,  on  which  it  is  reddish  brown,  and  the  arms,  where  it  is  long  and 
nearly  black.  The  female  is  wholly  tinged  with  red. 

The  general  appearance  of  this  formidable  ape  in  his  native  woods  may  be  gleaned 
from  M.  Du  Chaillu's  very  graphic  description  :  "  Suddenly,  as  we  were  yet  creeping 

*  tivOpuTTOS,  anthropos,  a  man  ;  et'Sos,  eiclos,  form. 
"\  rpwy\rj,  trogle,  a  Jiole  or  cave ;  5tfw,  duo,  to  enter :  one  u>ho  hides  in  caverns. 


MONKEYS.  443 


along  in  a  silence  which  made  a  heavy  breath  seem  loud  and  distinct,  the  woods  were 
at  once  filled  with  a  tremendous  barking  roar.  Then  the  underbrush  swayed  rapidly 
just  ahead,  and  presently  stood  before  us  an  immense  gorilla.  He  had  gone  through 
the  jungle  on  his  all-fours,  but  when  he  saw  our  party  he  erected  himself  and  looked 
us  boldly  in  the  face. 

"  He  stood  about  a  dozen  yards  from  us,  and  was  a  sight  I  think  I  shall  never  forget. 
Nearly  six  feet  high  (he  proved  four  inches  shorter),  with  immense  body,  huge  chest, 
and  great  muscular  arms,  with  fiercely  glaring,  large,  deep  grey  eyes,  and  a  hellish  ex- 
pression of  face,  which  seemed  to  me  some  nightmare  vision  :  thus  stood  before  us  the 
king  of  the  African  forest.  He  was  not  afraid  of  us  :  he  stood  there  and  beat  his 
breast  with  his  large  fists  till  it  resounded  like  an  immense  bass  drum,  which  is  their 
mode  of  bidding  defiance,  meantime  giving  vent  to  roar  after  roar." 

The  Orang-Outang  (  Troglodytes  satyrus}.  This  creature  inhabits  the  interior  of 
Borneo,  and  other  large  islands  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  and,  when  young,  is  said  to  re- 
semble man  more  than  any  other  animal.  The  body  is  covered  with  coarse  reddish 
hair,  the  face  is  smooth  and  of  a  bluish  tint,  and  the  thumbs  of  the  hinder  hands  very 
short  in  comparison  with  the  fingers.  He  is  said  sometimes  to  attain  the  height  of 
seven  feet,  and  possesses  great  strength  and  agility.  He  dwells  in  the  Avildest  forests, 
and  habitually  keeps  himself  upon  trees,  which  he  climbs  with  the  greatest  rapidity, 
and  springs  from  branch  to  branch  with  as  much  facility  as  the  smaller  monkeys.  On 
the  ground,  on  the  contrary,  the  orang-outangs  walk  with  difficulty,  and  are  frequently 
obliged  to  place  their  hands  upon  the  earth,  using  their  long  arm's  to  raise  themselves 
up  and  swing  themselves  forward,  very  much  as  a  man  would  use  a  pair  of  crutches. 
When  young  they  show  a  great  deal  of  intelligence,  attach  themselves  to  those  who 
have  the  care  of  them,  and  learn  to  imitate  many  of  our  actions. 


FIG.  488. — CHIMPANZEE. 


The  Chimpanzee  ( Troglodytes  niger)  is  another  of  these  approximations  to  the 
human  form.  In  height  it  equals  or  even  surpasses  that  of  man.  Its  body  is  covered 
with  black  or  dark  brown  hair,  scantily  distributed  in  front.  It  is  a  native  of  Guinea 
and  Congo,  in  Africa,  and  constructs  a  dwelling  of  leaves  and  foliage.  It  occasionally 
anns  itself  with  sticks  and  stones,  with  which  it  drives  away  elephants  and  combats 
the  attacks  of  its  enemies.  When  domesticated,  it  becomes  sufficiently  docile  to  sit  at 
a  table  and  take  its  food,  as  though  in  ridiculous  burlesque  of  human  manners. 


444  MAN. 


ORDER  BIMANES. 
MAN. 

Foremost  of  the  mammiferous  division  of  the  animal  creation 
stands  MAN,  constituting  an  Order  apart  in  the  class  to  which  he 
is  zoologically  related. 

The  highest  of  the  Quadrumana,  as  we  have  already  seen,  are 
constructed  to  reside  amid  the  trees  of  the  forests,  but  are  ill 
adapted  for  treading  on  the  ground,  or  for  sustaining  themselves 
in  an  upright  position.  The  foot  of  Man,  on  the  contrary  (a  very 
different  instrument  from  the  hinder  hand  of  the  most  man-like 
ape),  is  as  admirably  contrived  for  maintaining  him  in  an  erect 
posture  as  the  prehensile  limbs  of  the  monkey  are  for  its  life 
among  the  branches.  The  sole  of  the  human  foot  is  broadly  ex- 
panded, to  support  the  leg,  placed  vertically  above  it ;  the  heel  is 
cushioned  beneath,  so  'as  to  bear  the  whole  weight  of  the  body 
without  inconvenience  ;  the  toes  are  short,  possessing  little  flexi- 
bility, and  the  great  toe,  the  representative  of  the  thumb,  is  placed 
upon  the  same  plane  as  the  rest.  A  foot  thus  constructed,  although 
well  suited  for  progression,  is  quite  unserviceable  as  an  instrument 
of  prehension,  and,  seeing  that  the  hands  of  Man  are  equally 
unadapted  for  walking,  it  follows  that  he  is  the  only  animal  in 
creation  that  can  with  propriety  be  called  two-handed  and  two- 
footed,  bi-manous  and  bi-ped.  Man,  therefore,  stands  upon  his  feet 
only, 

"Erect  and  tall," 

his  hands  and  arms  being  left  free  for  other  purposes.  The  hands 
of  Man,  moreover,  which  derive  so  many  advantages  from  their 
complete  freedom,  are  equally  remarkable  for  the  perfection  of 
their  structure.  The  thumb,  proportionately  longer  than  in  any 
quadrumanous  animal,  confers  far  greater  facility  in  handling 
small  objects.  The  nails  are  so  arranged  as  to  support  the  or- 
gans of  touch  without  in  any  way  interfering  with  the  delicacy  of 
their  perceptions,  and  thus  the  human  hand  becomes  at  once  an 
instrument  of  sense  and  a  machine  of  matchless  capabilities. 

A  special  attribute  conferred  upon  Man,  alone  of  all  the  mam- 
miferous races,  is  his  power  of  articulating  sounds,  and  thus  com- 
municating with  his  fellows  by  a  mode  of  all  others  the  most 
convenient ;  and  if  we  add  to  this  the  facility  he  has  acquired  of 
recording  by  written  characters  the  results  of  his  experience,  we 
perceive  at  once  the  superiority  of  his  condition. 


MAN. 


445 


Thus  placed  above  the  brute  creation,  Man  forms  the  culmi- 
nating point  of  the  great  scheme  of  Nature  here  below,  while  his 
intellectual  superiority,  and,  much  more,  his  immortal  destiny, 
ally  him  closely  with  higher  and  unseen  existences. 

Our  task  is  ended  ;  and  yet,  before  bidding  adieu  to  the  reader 
who  has  accompanied  us  through  this  long  journey,  let  us  pause 
to  cast  one  parting  look  upon  the  wondrous  spectacle  presented 
to  our  contemplation.  Earth,  and  air,  and  water,  filled  with  life 
in  infinite  abundance,  life  in  innumerable  forms,  equally  beautiful, 
and  yet  so  diverse !  In  reviewing  the  multitudinous  races  com- 
posing the  Animal  Kingdom,  it  has  of  course  been  necessary  to 
describe  consecutively  the  different  Classes  and  Orders  in  which 
they  are  grouped  by  naturalists,  as  though  they  formed  but  one 
extended  line,  and  thus  in  a  somewhat  arbitrary  manner  to  assign 
to  each  a  place  in  the  lengthy  procession.  To  suppose  that  such 
is  their  natural  arrangement  would,  however,  be  to  fall  into  a  very 
serious  error.  Although  widely  separated  in  our  pages,  the 
tiger-beetle  and  the  tiger  are,  in  their  respective  spheres  of  action, 
pretty  much  of  equal  rank,  and  we  are  inclined  to  think  that  in 
its  own  element  the  cuttle-fish  holds  as  high  a  place  among  the 
Mollusca  as  the  lion  does  among  Quadrupeds.  The  "vast  chain 
of  being,"  therefore,  composed  of  numerous  successive  links,  exists 
only  in  the  imagination  of  the  poet,  and  the  young  naturalist 
would  be  greviously  misled  by  the  adoption  of  such  an  idea. 
The  Animal  Creation  may  be  more  properly  compared  to  some 
vast  city,  from  the  gate  of  which  several  main  thoroughfares  di- 
verge, each  leading  to  a  different  part  of  the  town,  but  all  dividing 
into  labyrinths  of  streets,  inhabited  by  artisans  of  various  occu- 
pations busily  labouring  for  the  general  welfare.  It  is  only  by 
such  a  view  as  this  that  we  can  at  all  understand  the  intricate 
dependencies  whereby  so  many  creatures  are  linked  together  in 
one  vast  system,  carrying  out  harmoniously  the  laws  imposed 
upon  them  by  their  GREAT  CREATOR. 


GLOSSARY. 


ABDOMEN,  the  belly. 
Abranchia,  without  gills.        , 
Acalephs,  jelly-fishes. 
Accipitres,  birds  of  prey. 
Acetabula,  sucking-cups. 
Actiniae,  fleshy  polypes. 
Adipose,  fat. 

Agglutinated,  stuck  together. 
Alcyons,  ajamily  of  compound  polypes. 
Amphibia,  breathing  both  air  and  water. 
Amphipoda,  having  legs  of  tivo  kinds. 
Anal,  belonging  to  the  vent. 
Aiiguilliformes,  eel-shaped. 
Animalcule,  a  minute  animal. 
Annelida,  ivorms. 
Annulated,  ringed. 

Anomoura,  with  strangely-shaped  tails. 
Antennae,  the  feelers  of  an  insect. 
Anthozoa,  a  class  of  flower-like  polypes. 
Aphaniptera,  having  no  visible  wings. 
Apoda,  footless. 
Apodal,  without  feet. 
Apterous,  without  wings. 
Apteryx,  without  wings. 
Arachnida,  spiders,  scorpions,  mites,  6-v. 
Arborescent,  tree-like. 
Arenicola,  a  kind  of  worm. 
Articulata,  having  the  body  composed  of  rings. 
Articulated,  jointed. 
Asterias,  a  star-fish. 
Avicularia,  an  appendage  like  a  bird's  Jiead. 


BARBULES,  little  beards. 
Basal,  at  or  near  the  base. 
Batrachian,  like  'a  frog. 
Bimanes,  having  two  hands. 
Biped,  having  two  feet. 
Bivalve,  having  two  shells. 
Bombyces,  moths. 

Brachelytrous,  with  short  wing-cases. 
Brachiopoda,  arm-footed. 
Brachyura,  short-tailed. 
Branchiae,  gills. 
Branchial,  belonging  to  the  gills. 

/CALLOSITIES,  hard  portions  of  skin. 
V_x     Campanularian,  bell-shaped. 
Carapace,  the  back-covering  of  a  tortoise. 


Carapax,  the  back-covering  of  a  tortoise. 

Carnivora,  flesh-eating  animals. 

Carnivorous,  flesh-eating. 

Cartilage,  gristle. 

Caudal,  belonging  to  the  tail. 

Cephalopoda,  animals  with  their  feet  upon  their 

heads. 

Cephalo-thorax,  head  and  body  conjoined. 
Cetacea,  wliales. 

Cheiroptera,  with  wings  like  hands. 
Chelae,  claws. 
Chelonian,  like  a.  tortoise. 
Chondropterygii,  having  cartilaginous  fins. 
Chrysalids,  the  pupce  of  butterflies. 
Ciliated,  covered  with  vibrating  filaments. 
Cirrhi,  long  tentacles. 
Cirri,  feelers  resembling  curls. 
Cirripidia,  barnacles. 
Citigrades,  quick-walkers. 
Clavicornes,  with  club-shaped  antenna-. 
Coccidae,  the  cochineal  insects. 
Cocoon,  a  silken  covering  spun  by  caterpillars. 

&C. 

Coleoptera,  shield-winged  insects. 
Conchifera,  shell-bearing. 

Conchology,  the  history  of  molluscous  animals. 
Confervae,  microscopic  vegetation. 
Conirostres,  Jiaving  conical  beaks. 
Contractile,  capable  of  contraction. 
Coxa,  the  hip-joint. 
Cranium,  the.  skull. 
Crepuscularia,./?y/«£  in  the  twilight. 
Crustacea,  having  the  body  covered  -with  a  hard 

crust. 

Cultrirostres,  having  coulter-shaped  bills. 
Cursores,  runners. 
Cursoria,  running  animals. 
Cuticle,  the  outer  skin. 
Cyclopteri,  with  circular  fins. 
Cyclostomes,  having  circular  mouths. 


DECAPODA,  having  ten  feet. 
Deciduous,  falling  off. 
Denticulations,  teeth  like  those  of  a  saw. 
Dentirostres,  tooth-billed. 
Dermal,  belonging  to  the  skin. 
Dermaptera,  having  skin-like  wings. 
Diaphragm,  a  muscular  partition. 
Digitigrades,  walking  on  the  toes. 


GLOSSARY. 


447 


Diptera,  Juiving  two  wings. 
Dorsal,  belonging  to  tJie  back. 
Dorsibranchiata,  Jiaving  gills  upon  the  back. 

ECHENEIDES,  the  sucking-fishes. 
Echinodermata,  spiny-skinned  animals. 
Echinus,  tlie  sea-urchin. 
Edentata,  toothless. 
Elytra,  tlie  wing-case  of  a  beetle. 
Embryo,  a  bud. 
Encrinite,  a  lily-stone. 
Entomostraca,  water-fleas. 
Entozoa,  parasitic  ivortns. 
Ephemera,  an  evening  JJy. 

Euplexoptera,    liaving    tlie    wings    beautifully 
folded. 


FACET,  a  small  surface. 
Femur,  tlie  thigh-bone. 
Fi.ssirostres,  ivitk  beaks  deeply  cleft. 
Foliated,  arranged  like  leaves. 
Foraminifera,y«//  of  holes. 
Forcipated,  provided  with  pincers. 
Fungiae,  corals  resembling  innshro 


ooir.s. 


GADOIDS,  fisJies  resembling  the  cod. 
Gallinaceae,   birds  resembling    barn-door 

fowls. 

Ganglia,  masses  of  nervous,  matter. 
Gasteropoda,  belly-footed. 
Gemmule,  a  little  bud. 
Geocorysae,  land-bugs. 
Glairy,  viscid. 

Grallatores,  stilt-legged  birds. 
Granules,  small  grains. 
Gymnodonts,  having  naked  teeth. 

HAUSTALLATE,  having  sucking-mouths. 
Hemiptera,  insects  with  wings  half  mem- 
branous and  half  leathery. 

Herbivorous,  feeding  upon  herbage. 

Heterogangliata,      with      brains      irregularly 
placed. 

Heteromerans,  insects  with  dissimilarly-jcinicd 
legs. 

Heteropoda,  with  irregularly-shaped  legs. 

Homoptera,  Jiaving  all  the  wings  alike. 

Hydrocorysas,  water-bugs. 

Hydrozoa,  water-animals. 

Hymenoptera,  itisccts  with  membranous  wings. 


TXCISORS,  cutting  or  front  teeth. 

-L      Inequitales,  spiders  with  irregular  wels. 

Inferobranchiata,  having  gills  at  the  under  part 

of  the  body. 

Infusoria,  animals  found  in  infusions. 
Insecta,  insects. 

Insectivora,  animals  that  devour  insects. 
Insectivorous,  /ceding  upon  insects. 
Integument,  covering. 

Invertebrate,  animals  having  no  back-bones. 
Isopoda,  having  all  the  legs  alike. 


LABRUM,  the  upper  lip  cfan  insect. 
Lsemodipoda,  ivitk Jeet  beneath  the  throat. 
Lamellicornes,  having  foliated  antenna'. 
Lamellirostres,  having  flattened  beaks. 


Laminae,  thin  plates. 

Laminated,  made  up  of  thin  plates. 

Larvae,  insects  in  their  first  state  cf  existence. 

Laterigrades.  walking  sideways. 

Lepidoptera,  scaly-winged  insects. 

Lingua,  the  tongue. 

Longirostres,  having  long  beaks. 

Lopho-branchi,  with  tujted  gills. 

MACRODACTYLES,  having  large  toes. 
Madrepores,  stony  corals. 
Malacopterygii,  _/?•$•/?££  with  soft  fins. 
Mammalia,  quadrupeds  that  suckle  their  young. 
Mandibulate,  furnished  with  jaws. 
Mandibule,  the  upper  or  lower  jaw. 
Marsupialia,  animals  with  pouches. 
Maxillae,  tlie  jaws. 
Maxillary,  belonging  to  the  jaws. 
Melasomes,  Jiaving  black  bodies. 
Mentum,  the  chin. 

Monotremata,  having  but  one  orifice. 
Mucus,  a  slimy  fluid. 
Muridae,  the  mouse  family . 
Myriapoda,  many  legs. 


NATATORY,  adapted  for  swimming. 
Nervures,  the  framework  of  an  insect's 

wing. 
Neuroptera,  insects  having  wings  with  strong 

nenntres. 

Nolonecta,  insects  that  swim  on  their  bttcks, 
Nudibranchiata,  having  naked  gills. 
Nymphs,  insects  in.  their  second  stage  of  exist- 
ence. 

OMNIVOROUS,  eating  all  kinds  of  food. 
Opercular,  belonging  to  the  operculum. 
Operculum,  a  little  dcor. 
Ophiuridae,  snake-tails. 

Orbiteles,  spiders  that  construct  circular  webs. 
Orthoptera,  insects  with  straight  wings. 
Osseous,  bony. 
Oviparous,  laving  eggs. 
Ovipositor,  egg-layer. 


PACHYDERMATA,  thick-skinned  animals. 
Palmipedes,  web-footed  birds. 
Palpi,  feelers. 

Palpicornes,  with  sensitive  horns. 
Parasita,  inhabiting  other  animals. 
Passerinae,  resembling  sparrozvs. 
Pectinated,  comb-sliapcd. 
Pectinibranchiata,  having  comb-like  giUs. 
Pectorals,  situated  on  the  breast. 
Pedicles,  foot-stalks. 
Peduncle,  a  stalk,  a  little  stem. 
Pelvis,  the  bony  framework  of  the  hips. 
Pennatula,  like  little  feathers. 
Pentamerans,  insects  luiving  five  joints  in  their 

feet. 

Perennibranchiata,  Juiving  permanent  gills. 
Phalenae,  moths. 
Pholades,  boring  shell-fish. 
Placental,  having  a  placenta. 
Plagiostomes,  broad-mouthed  fisJies. 
Planarias,  fiat-shaped  worms. 
Plantigrade,  walking  on  the  sole  of  the  foot. 
Plastron,  the  breast-shield  of  a  tortoise. 
Pleuronectes,  swimming  on  cue  side. 


448 


GLOSSARY. 


Podurss,  spring-tails. 
Polype,  having  many  feet  (tentacles). 
Polypidom,  the  abode  of  polypes. 
Polyzoa,  many  animals  associated  together. 
Polyzoon,  one  of  the  associated  animals  (Poly- 
zoa). 

Pores,  orifices. 

Prehensile,  adapted  to  lay  hold  of  an  object. 
Pressirqstres,  -with  flattened  beaks. 
Protrusible,  that  can  be  pushed  out. 


QUADRUMANA,    animals    having    four 
hands. 


T)  AMIFIED,  branched. 
-TV     Raptores,  birds  of  prey. 
Rectigrades,  walking  straiglit  for^vards. 
Remora:.  sucking-fishes. 
Resiliency,  elasticity,  springiness. 
Retractile,  capable  of  being  drawn  back. 
Retina,  a  delicate  network. 
Rhizopods,  root-footed  animals. 
Rhyncophora,  insects  with  long  snouts. 
Rodent,  gnawing. 
Rodentia,  gnawing  animals. 
Rotifera,  wheel-bearers. 
Ruminantia,  animals  tJiat  chew  the  cud. 


SALTATORIA,  leaping  insects. 
Saltigrades,  progressing  by  jumps. 
Saurian,  like  a  lizard. 
Scansores,  climbing  birds. 
Scintillations,  sparkles. 
Sciuridae,  squirrels. 
Scolopendridoe,  centipedes. 
Scutibranchiata,  having  shielded  gills. 
Segments,  divisions. 

Serpute,  worms  living  in  twisicd  shells. 
Serricornes,  insects  with  saw-like  antenna. 
Sertularians,  sea-wreaths. 
Sessile,  seated  upon. 
Setae,  bristles. 
Setigera,  bristle-bearing. 
Sollipedes,  animals  with  a  single  hoof. 
Spiracles,  breathing-holes. 
Squamipennes,  having  scaly  fins. 
Stenely  tra,  having  short  wing-cases. 


Sternum,  the  breast-bone,  the  breast. 
Stomapoda,  having  feet  close  to  the  month, 
Strepsiptera,  insects  with  twisted  wings. 
Stylopized,  infested  with  stylops. 
Suctoria,  sucking. 


TARSAL,  belonging  to  the  foot. 
Tarsus,  the  joints  of  the  foot. 
Tectibranchiata,  with  covered  gills. 
Tentacles,  feelers. 
Tenuirostres,  having  slender  beaks. 
Terebellse,  boring-worms. 
Tertiary,  the  third  of  a  series. 
Tetramerans,  having  four  joints. 
Thoracic,  belonging  to  tJie  chest. 
Thorax,  the  chest. 
Thysanoura,  hairy-tailed. 
Tibia,  the  shank,  tlie  leg-bone. 
Totipalmatse,  completely  web-footed. 
Trachse,  air-tubes. 
Trachelides,  having  long  necks. 
Trenchant,  cutting. 

Trimerans,  having  three  joints  in  tlie  foot. 
Trochanter,  the  hip-joint. 
Tubicula,  inhabiting  tubes. 


U 


Nl  VALVE,  having  but  one  shell. 


VASCULAR,  full  of  blood-vessels. 
Ventral,  belonging  to  Hie  belly. 
Vermiform,  wor7n-shapcd. 
Vertebrae,  the  bones  of  the  back. 
Vertebrata,  animals  having  back-bone. 
Vesicles,  little  bladders. 
Vespiary,  a  wasp's  nest. 
Viscous,  slimy. 
Viviparous,  producing  living  young. 


V  \XOPHAGI, 


yOOPHYTES,  plant-like  animals. 


ALPHABETICAL   INDEX. 


ABRAMUS 

Page 

248 

Anoura 

PflfV    } 

Ateles 

Page 

Abranchia  
Abranchiate  Annelidans 
Acalephae    

64,  276 
...     64 
29—37 
35 
238 

Anser  

358      Auchenia 

^87 

Ant-Bear 

qgT 

Ant-eater,  Cape  
Ant-eater,  Scaly  

411 
•  411 

Auroch 

Acalephae,  Hydrostatic. 
Acanthopterygii 

Aves 

308 
1  86 

Antelope 

392 

Acari  

139 

Ant-Fox  
Anthozoa  

107 

37-48 
106 

Axolotle  
Axolotus 

278 
278 
278 

438 

Accipitres  
Acipenser     . 

3*3 

264 

Ant-Lions     . 

Axolotus  pisciformis  . 
BABOONS 

A  cla<> 

2      Ants 

112 

108 
136,  137 
127 
107 

Acorn  shells  

179       Ant.  White    

Actineta  
Actinia  alcyonoides 

45 

Aphaniptera 

Badgers  
Balsena 

Anhides 

Actiniae  

44      Aohis-Lion    

Balani 

Actinia  gemmacea  
A  genus 

45 

Apis       .        .    . 

Balistes 

267 

Annda 

Balloon-  Fish 

Agoutis  

405      Aptenodytes  

353 

Bandicoot,  Gunn's 

30^ 

Alauda   

..  ..  324      Aptera 

Bandicoots    .. 
Barbels 

366 
248 

Albatross 

354        Antervsnciai 

Alca    

352 

Apteryx  

.  .        .      742 

Barbus 

248 

Alca  impennis  
Alca  pica 

352 

Apteryx  Australis 

Barnacles    
Basse 

Alca  torda 

Aquila  chrysae"  tas   
Arachnida 

3^ 

Batrachian  Amphibia. 
Bats    

280 
43i 

Alcedo          

331 

Alcidae 

Arachnidans   137  —  141 
Arachnidans,  Net-spreading  141 
Arachnidans,  Sedentary    ...   144 
Arachnidans,  Vagabond    ...  148 
Aranea                                       TAI 

Alcyon   

-      38 

Bats,  Fox 

Alcyonium    

t 

Bats,  Horseshoe  

432 

Ammocxtes   

..    270 

Bear  White 

Amceba  diffluens    
Amphibia  
Amphibious  Carnivora 
Amphipoda  
Amphisbffina 

....  7,  8 
273 
426 

164 
296 

Archers  

241 

Bears  
Beavers 

413 

398 

Arctomys  

402 

Ardea 

Aremcola  

69 

Bee,  Humble   
Bee  Parasites  
Bee,  Queen  
Bees    
Bees,  Stylopizjd  
Beetles,  Bacon 

i.  COW  Cn  OM/i 

Argali 

393 

Amphisba^nida:    
Amphiumas 

296 
277 

Argonaut  
Argyroneta 

228 
146 

Anabas  

242 

Armadillo    

408 

Anaticlas 

358 

Articulata 

Beetles,  Blister    

97 

Anchovies  

253 

Ascidia  

189 

Beetles,  Bombardier  .. 
Beetles,  Carrion 

89 

189 

47 

Asellus 

167 

Beetles,  Diamond  

98 

254 

Asinus    
Asinus  Montanns 

383 
.  384 

Beetles,  Ground   

89 

Anguilla             

259 

Beetles,  Large  Water 
Beetles,  Long-horned 
Beetles,  Rove  
Beetles,  Scavenger  
Beetles,  Sexton    
Beetles,  Snout         

9° 
99 
92 
95 
92 
98 

Anguilliformes 

•  259 

Asinus  Quagga 

^83 

298 

383 

Animalcules  
Animalcules,  Infusorial 

7 
7 

SO  72 

A  species  
Ass 

2 

382 

Astacus 

156 

Anomoura   

161 

Astacus  fluviatilis   

156 
52 

Beetles,  Spring    

92 

An  Order  ... 

Beetles.  Tiger  

..     80 

29 


45° 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


1 

Beetles  Water 

9° 
9 
444 
359 
326 
1  60 
395 

IOI 

128 
275 
293 
293 
293 
89 
"5 

121 

Canary 

Page 
325 
158 

Page 
Clam-Shells  198 

Clavicornes   ...                             93 

Bergmehl  
Bi  manes    
Birds                                  308 

Cancer  vocans  
Canis 

I  DO 

419 

Cleodora                                    221 

Cleodora  subula  221 
Clio  Borealis  34,  220 
Clotho  Durandii  145 

Birds  of  Paradise    

Canis  familiaris    
Canis  lupus  

419 
419 
420 

Clothes-Moth   124 
Club  Hydra                                 27 

Blatta  
Blight  Insects  
Blind  Worms    

Cantharis  
Cantharjs  vittata 

97 
•  ••     97 

Clupea  Harengus    252 
Clupea  Sardina    253 
Clupeada;  252 

Capercailzie  
Capra                      

339 
362 

Boas 

166 

Clupea^     .  ..              .                252 

Boidae......  

Caprimulgus  

323 

Coal-Fish  255 

Coat-of-Mail-Shells  216 
Coccidse                                     128 

Caradiacea              .    . 

199 

Coccinella  99" 
Coccus  cacti                              128 

244 
195 

394 
395 
395 
395 
396 
397 
394 
395 
185 
92 
89 
204 
350 
157 
407 
170 

167 
248 
256 

Carinaria  
Carnivora  

218 
..  89—367 

Coccus  lacca  128 

Borers 

Cochineal  Insect  128 
Cock  of  the  Wood                   339 

Bos  
Bos  Americanus  

Carp  
Cassis 

297 

3-ti 

Bos  Gaffer  

Castor 

398 

Cockroaches     joi 

39.8 
235 

Bos  moschatus  
Bos  Taurus  

Casuarius  
Cat-Fish    

Coleoptera  88  —  99 
Coleopterous   Pentamerans.     89 
Coleopterous  Tetramerans..     97 
Coleopterous  Trimerans    ...     99 
Colubrida;  295 

Cats 

.  421,  426 
26^ 

Bowerbankia  densa  
Brachelytrous  Pentamerans 
Brachinus  
Brachiopoda                     203, 

Cavies    

405 

Coluber  natrix         .                   295 

Centipedes    
Centipede,  Forked 

59,  72,  74 

Columbai   339- 

Brachypteres    
Brachyura 

Colymbida^          .    .                  351 

Centronotus  
Cephalopoda 

244 

221  230 

440 
328 

Colymbus  351 

Bradypus  
Branchiopoda  167— 
Branchiopod      Entomostra- 
cans                          

Colymbus  glacialis  351 

Cerastes  
Cercopithecus  
Certhia  

Conchifera  102  —  203. 
Conchiferous  Mollusks  192 
Conch-Shells     213 

Breams 

Cervus                  

39' 

368     371 

Brill 

Brittle-Stars                       .    . 

240 

ChaHodons    
Chaffinches 

235 

Confervas  9 

Bruchus 

108 

Buceros 

Chameleons             .  .. 

Buffalo 

Chameleon  Flies 

Buffalo,  Horse-tailed  
Bufj 

39° 

285 

Charadrias     
Cheese-Mites 

343 

Coots  349 
Coral,  Bark-bearing   42 
Coral,  Mare's-tail    43 

Bugs  

Bullfinch 

125 
325 

92 

7 

Cheiroptera  
Chelonia 

430 

Coral,  Mushroom    47 
Coral,  Organ-pipe                      44 

Buprestis  * 

Chelonian  Reptiles 
Chelura  terebrans    .. 
Chigoe   

304 
167 

136 

Bursaria  truncatella  
Bustards    

Coral,  Red            .  .                    42 

Corals                                   37  —  48 

Butterflies     
Butterfly,  Comma 

119 
119 
119 

773 
128 
109 
no 
274 
275 
53 
226 
172 

Chimeras 

265 

Coralline,  Bell  29 
Corallium  Rubrum  42 
Cormorants  357 
Corvus                                       325 

Butterfly,  White  Hawthorn 
/CACHALOTS   

Chinchilla  
Chirocephalus  diapha 
Chiton 

399 

nus        170 

216 

Coryne                                         27 

Chloromys  
Chcetura,  Cypselus... 
Chondropterygii  
Chondropterygii     bra 
fixis  .. 

405 

Coryphsna                               245 

V_x     Cactus  cochinilifer  ... 
Caddis-Flies 

..  263,  265 
nchiis 
265 

235 

Caddis-  Worm  
Caducibranchiata  Amphibia 
Cfficilias  
Cake-Urchins  ...               .    . 

Cowrie,  Money   210 

Chrysophrys  

Crab,  Beckoning  160 

Cicadas  

Calamaries 

Cicindela    
Ciconia  

89 

345 

Calligus  Miilleri  

Crab,  Edible                             158 

Camels 

39° 
385 
387 
29 
36 

Ciconia  alba  
Ciliated  Animacules 
Cirripedia  .... 

345 
19 

Crab,  Hermit  161 

Crab,  King                                 170 

Camelopnrdalis    

(Camelus                            

Camelus  Vicunna    
Campanulari.i  
Campanularian  zoophytes... 

Citigrades 

148 

Civet  

Crab    Racer                              159  • 

Clams     

198 

ALPHABETICAL   INDEX. 


45  J 


Page 
•Crab,  Shore  158 

Page 
Decapoda    155—163 
Delphinus  delphis  372 
Delphinus  Urea    372 
Delphinus  phoccena                 372 

Entomostracans, 
feet  
Entozoa  
Epeira  diadema  .... 
Equus... 

Pare 

Tufted- 
169 

Crab,  Soldier    161 
Crab,  Spider                           .   157 

56 
144 
782 

Crab,  Swimming  157 
Crab,  West  Indian  152 
Crabs                                157  —  162 

Dentirostres  320 

Dermaptera  ico 
Dermestes  lardarius   04. 

Equus  cabalus  
Erinaceus  
Eristalis... 
Ermine 

382 
429 
132 

Crangon                                      156       Desmidae    o 

•Craspedocephalus  lanceola- 

tus                                             292 

Diatoms  9 
Didelphis   364 

Esox  belone  
Esox  lucius   
Eunectes  murinus 
Eunice  gigantea  ... 
Euplexoptera   
Euplotes  striatus... 

250 
249 
294 
?o 

100 

7 

Cray-Fish  155 
Cray-Fish,  River  156 
Cray-Fish,  Sea                         1^5 

Didelphis  murina    365 
Didelphis  Virginianis  365 
Digitigrade  Carnivora  415 
Diodon  262 
Diomedea  exulans  354 
Diptera  129  —  134 

Crax                     337 

Creepers               .         328 

Euplotes  truncatus  7 
Exocetus    250 

FALCO  HARP  VI  A  315 
Falcon  315 
Feather-Moths    124 
Feather-Star    50 
Felidae                                         *it 

Cricket,  Mole    103 

Discoboli   .'  255 
Distoma     56 

Crickets                      102 

Crocodile  302 

Distoma  hepaticum    56 

Diver,  Great  Northern  351 

Crossbills   324 
Crotalus                                     290 

Dogs  419 
Dolphin-Fish                            345 

Crustacea  61,  149  —  173 
Crustaceans,  Suctorial  172 

Dolphins  371,  372 

Felis    
Fclis  catus 

4=1 
426 

Doris                .      .             .       217 

Felis  leo 

Cuckoos                   333 

Dorsibranchiata  64 

Felis  leopardus    . 
Felis  lynx  
Felis  onca 

425 
426 

Cucujo    92 

Dorsibranchiate  Annelidans    66 
Double  Walkers                       296 

Culex                                   .    .  129 

Draco  volans    300 
Dragon-Flies    104 
Drake  (May-  Fly)                     106 

Felis  pardalis   
Felis  tigris 

425 

Cultirostres  344 
Curassows     337 

Fer-de-lance 

Dromedarius    385 

Ferrets  
Field-Mice    
Filaria  medinensis 
File-Fishes    
File-Sheik  
Finches  ... 
Fire-Flies  (Cucujo) 
Fishes 

417 
399 
57 
=63 
i95 
325 
92 
...  234—270 
i?2 
254 

Cursoria  100 

Ducks                                        358 

Dugongs               376 

Cuttle-  Fish  22  1  —  227 
Cyanea  capillata  30 
Cyclobranchiuta  215,216 
Cyclops  169,  179 
Cyclopteri  258 
-Cyclopterus  lumpus    258 
Cyclostomes  269 
Cyclostomi                                237* 

Duns                                      ..  106 

EAGLE,  FISHER  315 
Eagle,  Golden  315 

Fish-Lice  
Fishing-Frog   
Fissipennx 

Eagles    213 
Earth-Worms                               64 

Fissirostres    

321 

Cydippe  pileus  33 

Fissurella  
Flamingoes 

214 
349 

Echeneis    258 
Echidna  aculeata                      363 

Flatcoils  
FJat  Fishes  
Flea,  Water  
Fleas  ... 

207 
....  256—259 

ic8 
136 

Cyprides                                 .  169 

Echinodermata  48  —  55 

Cyprinus    248 
Cyprinus  auratus    248 
Cyprinus  barbus  248 
Cyprinus  carpio  248 
Cyprinus  phoximus    248 

Flesh-Flies    
Flies,  Chameleon 
Flies,  Crane  
Flies,  Flesh  
Flies,  Forest  
Flies,  Gad  

133 
I31 
•'•  130 
*33 
134 
133 

Eels                  ..         259 

!   Eels   Conger            -                 260 

Elater                     92 

j   Elater  noctilucus  92 
!   Electric  Eel                                261 

Cypris    169 

Electric  Rays  268 

Flies,  Spid-r  
Flies,  Wasp 

134 
132 

Elephant                                    378 

Flies,  Whame   

131 

Cythereas  169 

DABS  256 
Dactylopterus    240 
Daddy-long-k-gs  131 

Elephant,  African  379 
Elephant,  Indian                     379 

Flounders     

2^6 

Fluke,  Liver  
Flukes 

56 
56 

Elephas     378 
Elephas  Indicus  479 
Elephas  Africanus  379 
Emerald  Bird  of  Paradise..   326 
Emys  306 
Encrinite                                      .     4O 

Mustra  

:::  .S 

Fluviatile  polyzoa 
Flv-catchers  

i87 

-321 

Daphnise    170 
Dasypus                                    408 

Flying'  Fishes  
Flying  Gurnards... 

250 
240 
II 

Dead-man's  Fingers  38       Entomostraca  168 
Death-Watches    93       Entomostracans,    Branchio- 
Death's-head  Hawk-Moth.   121    \       pod....                              ...  169 

Forficula     

TOO 

Formica  

112 

29—2 


452 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


Fountain-Fishes  
Fowl  (Barn-door)    .... 

Page 
35 
337 

Gurnard 

Page 

238 

Page 
Hydrophilus     .                          04 

Gymnodonts  
Gymnotus 

262 

261 

Hydrozoa                                     24 

Hyla  284 

261 

Hylobates                                  441 

Frigate-Bird     
Fringilla  
Frog,  Tree    

357 
325 

...   284 

Gypaetos  
HADDOCK     . 

3i8 

•    •  235 

Hymenoptera  no  —  116 
Hystrix                                      404 

IBIS    ...                               346 

FYoo- 

284 

129 

Hsematopus.... 

343 

Ibis  religiosa    346 

Fulica 

Hair-Worm 

57 

Ibis,  Scarlet  346 
Ichneumon,    or    Pharaoh's 
Rod  421 
Ichneumons                                in 

Fungiae 

48 

Hairy  -winged  Insects 
Hake 

109 

•  ••  255 

GAD-FLTES  .... 

133 

Halibut 

256 

Halichondria  oculata. 

18 
•    •       376 

Iguanas  300 
Iguanians                                    297 

Gadoids  
Galeopithecus  
Gall-Flies 

2.55 
435 

Halietus  

315 

Inclusa  200 

Halithea  aculeata    .... 
Hamsters  

70 
401 

Inequiteles                          .    .  146 

Gallinae 

335 

Inferobranchiata  215 

Callus     

337 

Hapale        

436 

Infusoria  9,  19  —  24 
Infusorial  Animalcules  9 
Insecta  59,  72,  75—149 
Insectivora                                428 

Gammarus  

^ 
165 

Harpa  
Harp-Shells 

211 
211 

Gasteropods  

.      2O4,    2O5 
1  60 
3OO 

Hawk-Moths    
Hawk-Moth,  Unicorn 
Hag-Fishes  
Heathcocks 

1  2O 
120 
270 

339 

Insects  59,  72,  75—149 
Insects,  Blight                          128 

Geckos 

Insect,  Leaf  101 
Insects,  Homopterous    127 
Insects,  Mantis    101 

Geese 

.   358 

H  cdgehog  

429 

1  60 

Helix                    .    .    .. 

...  207 

Inuus  440 
Isis  hippuris  43 
Isopoda  166 

TACKANAS    348 

Geocorysae  
Geotrupes  

125 
95 

Hell-bender  
Helmet-shells          .    .. 

277 
2n 

167 

Giraffe 

300 

Hemiptera  
Herbivorous  Cetacea 

124—127 

375 

Glass  Snake  .... 
Globe  Beroe 

298 
33 

J      Jackdaw                            326 

Hermit  Crab  
Herons 

161 

345 

Jaguar    ..                               ...  424 

Globe-Fishes    
Glow-Worms 

262 

9^ 

Janthma                                .    .  209 

Herrings    

252 

ay  326 
elly-Fishes         30 

Glutton 

Heterogangliata 

181 

88   96 

Goats 

392 

Heteropoda  
Hippobosca  equina     . 
Hippocampus  

.  218,  219 

ulidae    74 
ulus                                .             74 

Goatsuckers  
Gobis 

248 

261 

256 

TV^ANGAROO    364 
JL\.     Keyhole  Limpets   ...  214 
•King  Crab     170 

Gold-beaters     
Goldfinches  
Gold-  Fish 

92 
325 
248 

Hippopotamus  
Hirudinidse 

379 

.     65 

Goniopsis  ruricola   
Gordius 

152 
57 

65 

Hirundinidiae    

322 

336 

T    ABRAX  239 
I  j     Labyrinthiform    Pha- 
ryngeals     241 
Lacerta                                      298 

Gorgonias  
Gorgonum  fiabellum  . 

43 
43 

Hog    
Holothurise 

38o 

Gorilla    
Grallatores 

442 
342 

Holothuria  nigra  
Homalop'-ina 

55 
288 
127  —  129 

Lacerta  agilis  298 
Lacertians                               .  297 

Grampus    
Grasshoppers 

372 

IO2 

Homoptera  

Hoopoes    
Hornbills  

33 
331 

Lace-winged  Flies  107 
Ladybirds                               .     99 

Grayling    . 

252 

Grebes 

351 

Horse-foot       

Laemargus  Borealis  267 
Laemodipoda                       166 

Ground-Hog  

411 

Horses    

382 

Grouse   
Gruntin^  Cow 

^ 

House  Cricket  
Hyaenas 

102 

Lagomys    ./  405 

Grus    
Grus  cinerea 

344 

Hyalsea  

Hvalaea  gibbosa 

221 
22.1 

Lamellicornes  94 
Lamellirostres  358 
Lammer  Geyer    318 
Lamprey,  Fresh-water  269 
Lamprey,  Sea  269 
Lampreys                                   269 

Gryllotalpa    
Gryllus  campestris  .... 
Gryllus  domesticus 
Gryllus  locusta 

i°3 

102 
102 
IO2 

Hyalaea  trispinosa  
Hydatid 

221 

56 

Hydra    

25 

Hydra,  Club  

27 

Guanas  
Gudgeon    
Guenons 

3°0 
248 
440 

337. 
4°  5 

Hydra  tuba 

"       28 

Lampyris  93 
Land-Bugs    125 
Lanius                                        320 

Hydra  vividis  
Hydrochaerus  
Hydrochaerus  capibari 
Hydrocorysae 

26 
4°5 
4°5 
125 

Guinea-Fowl    
Guinea  Pigs 

Lantern-Flies   129 
Lantern-Sprats    173 

Guinea-Worm 

Gulo   .. 

...   414. 

Hvdrophidae 

...    287 

Larks  ....                               ...  324 

ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


453 


Page 
Laterigrades                               148 

Page 
Mailed-Cheeks    240 

Page 
Mus  cricetus   401 

Leaf-rollers                                 123 

Malacopterygii      abdomin- 

Mus  lemmus                              401 

ales                                         246 

Mus  messorius                           401 

Leaping  Orthoptera                 102 

Malacopterygii  apodes  259  —  261 

Mus  rattus           .                       401 

Malacopterygii  sub-branch- 

Mus  zibeticus                            400 

Leech                                           65 

iata                                           255 

Musca                                        133 

Leech,  Medicinal                        65 

Mammals    ..               ..  359  —  445 

Muscicapas    321 

Man                                           .  444 

Musk  Ox      397 

Manatns                                      376 

Musk-Rat                                 400 

Leopard                                     425 

Mandrils    ...                     439 

Musks    388 

Lepas                                         179 

Mams                                    .  ..  411 

Mussels    .        ...                       197 

Man-of-war  Bird                       354 

Mussels,  River                         197 

L^pidosiren  protopterus          273 

Mantis    101 

Mustela  erminea  417 

Mantis  Crab                  150 

Mustelafuro  417 

Marmots                                      402 

Mustela  lutris                           419 

Lepus  cuniculus                        404 

Marmozets    436 

Mustela  putorius  416 

Marsupialia               ....  363,  367 

Mustela  vulgaris  .  417 

Martens                                       418 

Mycetes                                   .  436 

Libellula    1  04 

Matuta  152 

Mvgale  avicularia  162 

Lice          ...            135 

May-Flies     105 

Mygale  cementaria  142 

Medusa?                                32,  34 

Myriapoda    ..            ...  59,  63,  72 

Myrmecobius        ..      .            366 

Meleagris                                  335 

Mvrmeleo        106 

Mysis                                .           164 

Limnseus  sta^nalis                    207 

Menobranchus   278 

Mytilacea  197 

Mephites                                   418 

Mytilus         197 

Myxine                                        270 

Limi'lus                                       170 

Mice      398 

Millepedes                                   74 

Mites                                          139 

N  AIDES                              6* 

Lion                                           423 

Mola                   .  262 

Nais  .::::::::::::::::::  65 

Mole-Crickets                            103 

Nais  proboscidea       .  .         .65 

Naja                                          292 

Lizard,  Flying                           300 

Mollusca     i  So  —  230 

Nar\vhal        372 

Lizard    Sand                              298 

Mollusks  Conchiferous  192  —  214 

Nautilus                                      228 

Lizard   True                               298 

Nautilus  pompilius                   228 

Lizard    Viviparous                   298 

Monitors                 300 

Navicula  hippocampus.  7,  8,  10 

Lizards                                        298 

Monkev  Capuchin                   436 

Nemertes                        .       57,  58 

Llamas                                     .   ^87 

Monkeys,  Fox-headed  ...    .  435 

Nematus  grossulariae  in 

Lobsters                                61,  154 

Monkey,  Howling      ...          436 

Nepa  127 

Monkey    Long-tailed               440 

Nereids                                       70 

Monkey,  Spider       437 

Net-spreading  Arachnidans  141 

Monodon                                     372 

Neurootera                      104  —  1  10 

Longirostres                               345 

Monodon  monoceros  372 

Newt,  Great  Warty    282 

Lophius  254 

Moon-Fishes    262 

Newt,  Smooth  283 

Morses                                         427 

Newts                                274,  282 

Moschus                                    388 

Nigger                                           55 

Lophyropes                               169 

Moschus  moschiferus              388 

Nightingale     321 

Noctiluca  miliaris         ....     13 

Northern  Clio                          220 

Lumbricus  terrestris                  64 

Moth,  Hawk                             120 

Notonecta     126 

Lupus  419 

Moth,  Pack  124 

Nudibranchiata  216,  217 

Numenius                                   346 

Mouse,  Harvest                        401 

Nuthatch  328 

Mud-Devil    ...                        .   277 

Mud-Eel                                    279 

MACACUS    439 

Mud-Fish  273 

OCTOPUS  VULGARIS  224 

Mu^iloids                                    246 

Ocvpoda                        159 

Mackerels                                   242 

Mugils   ...                                   246 

Oestrus  133 

Macrodactyles                          347 

Mullets                      ->39   ^40,  246 

Onager    384 

Mullus                                       239 

Oniscus                                 .    .   167 

Orivchoteuthis                          226 

Mactrae                                        200 

Murasna                                     260 

Ophidia     287 

Murex                                          211 

Ophiuridas            .            51 

Muridas                                      398 

Opossum                                      364 

Maeoie  ....                          ...  ^26 

Mus  amphibius    ..              ...  401 

Opossum,  Mouse  ..  365 

454 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


2 
Opossum,  Virginian   
Orang-Outang 

yag* 

365 
443 
203 
147 

Perch 

Page 
238,  239 
239 

Porcupines    

rage 
404 
372 
r   ...     35 
224 
156 

Perch,  Sea    

Porpoises   
Portuguese  Man-of-Wa 
Poulpe,  Common  
Prawns 

Orbicula 

Percoids 

.    .  238 

Orbiteles                      .        .    . 

Perennibranchiata  

..     277 

Ornithoryncus  paradoxus... 

32 

262 

Perennibranchiate  Amphibia  274 
Petrels                                        IZA. 

Pressirostres  

342 

Orthoptera          .    . 

100 

411 

3?8 

340 

Petromvzon  

...    269 

PrieDieu  
Prionus  

102 

Orycteropus  
Osmerus    
Ossifraga 

Petromyzon  fluviatilis 
Petromyzon  marinus  ... 
Phaston  
Phalacrocorax 

269 
269 

357 
357 

Pristis     268 
Proboscidian  Pachyderms..  378 
Procellaria    354 
Procyon                                     AI<I 

Ostrich 

365 

Os  tracion  

2 

263 

195 
341 
418 

Phalangers,  Flying  
Phalangistae  

366 
365 

Proteus  
Proteus  anguinus    
Proteus,  Snake-like    .. 
Pseudopus  
Psittacus 

278 
278 
278 
298 

334 

Ostrea  arborea  
Otis 

Pharaoh's  Rat  
Phasianus 

421 
537 

Otter 

O  vovi  vipara  
Ovis    

36l 
393 
393 
3i8 
394 
157 
343 
*95 
195 
196 

377 
379 
124 

387 
158 
156 
155 
349 
94 
7,8 

TOO 
42S 

"i 

326 

326 

3,    20 

!35 
56 
335 
334 
339 
325 
3i9 
3i9 
216 
336 
336 
106 

Pheasant  (Colchicus)  ... 
Pheasants      
Phoca 

337 
337 

Psylla  
Ptarmigans 

128 
339 

2ig  221 

404 
431 

Ovis  ammon  
Owls 

Phocoena    
Phoenicopterus 

371 
34Q 

Pteropoda    
Pteromys  

Ox 

Pholades    
Pholcus  phalangista   .  . 

202 
146 
367 

Oyster-Catchers 

Ptinus           

93 

Oyster,  Tree    
Oysters 

Puff-Adder 

292 

Phyrganea     
Phyllodoce    

109 
67 

Puffin    
Pulex....  
Pulex  irritans    

352 

'36 
136 

Oysters,  Pearl  

PACHYDERMS  
Pachyderms,  Ordinary 
Pack-Moth                        .    . 

Phyllopa    
Phyllopeds    
Phyllopes  
Phyllostoma  
Phyllostoma  spectrum 
Physalia  
Physeter    

17° 
170 
169 
43i 
432 
35 
373 

Pulex  penetrans  

136 
206—208 
4J5 
172 
190 

423 
383 

Putorius  
Pycnogons    
Pyrosoma  

/^vUADRUMANA 
\J     Quagga 

Paco   

Pagurus     
Palaemon 

Picus  
Pigeons 

332 
335,  339 
249,  250 
250 
253 

Palinurus  
Palmipedes   

Pike    
Pike,  Sea  
Pilchard     

Quail  

RABBIT  
Racoon 

339 

..'....  404 
414 

Pandorina  morum  
Panorpa 

Pilot-  Fish  

244 

Panther  
Papilionidse  

Pinnipedes    
Pintadoes         .... 

157 
337 

Raia    ... 
Rail,  Land    
Rails 

268 

348 
348 

Paradisea  apoda  
Paramecium  aurclia    ...  7, 
Parasita     
Parasitic  Worms  

Pipe-  Fish 

Pipas  

Placentalia    
Plagiostomes    

286 
363 
265 
256 
57 
57 
57 
207 
4J3 
127 
345 

Rails,  Common  Water 
Rallus   . 

348 
348 

Plaice  
Planaria,  Black    
Planaria  nigra  
Planariae    
Planorbis   
Plantigrade  Carnivora 
Plant-Lice     
Platalea.  . 

Rallus  aquaticus 

348 

•Parrots  
Partridges 

Rallus  crex   
Ramphastos 

348 

Parus    

Rana  
Raptores 

284 
313 

Passeres           

Rat-Hares  
Rat-  Moles 

405 

399 

Patellae  
Pavo                     .    . 

Rat.  Water 

Platypus,  Duck-billed 

362      Rataria 

Pearl-Shells 

Pecten  192 

j.yu 
,   I96 

208 
135 
.356 
356 

Pleuronectes     

256 
351 

Raven      

4°° 
.-  ..  326 

Pectinibranchiata    

Podiceps    

!  Rays 

268 

Podura 

135 
415 
255 
265 

Razor-Shells     
Rectigrades 

201 

144 

259 

Pelicanidae    
Pelicans 

Polecats  
Pollack  
Polyodon  
Polype    

i  Remorse 

Pelicanus  aquilas  

•  357 

Reptiles  
Rhinoceros 

270—307 
381 

Pelicanus  onocrotalus 

357 

Polype-cells 

Pennatula  phosphora  

.     43 

Polype  Sertularia    .... 
Polytoma  

36 

7    8 

Rhizopods  
Rhombus  

....     10,   II 

256 

7S6 

.     88 
.     89 
.  366 
.  366 

.    24.2 

Polyzoa    .  . 

184  —  188 
187 
207 
363 

..  262 

Pentamerans,  Coleopterous 
Perameles  Gunnii   
Peramelidas     

Polyzoa  fluviatile    .... 
Pond-Snail    
Porcupine  Ant-eater  . 
Porcupine-Fish    .. 

Ryncophora  

...    98 

Riband-Fishes 

245 

Ricinus  

,..  135 

Perca  scandens    .. 

•  River  Cray-  Fish  .... 

...  «6 

ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


455 


Page 
River-Horse                 379 

Sea-Baskets  .... 

Page 
50 

Page 
Skunks  .  .                                 418 

Roach                                    ..  249 

Sea-Blubber 

3° 

Slow-Worms                             298 

Rock-Shells                               211 

Sea-Cows 

376 

Slugs                                        206 

Rodentia   ...                    397 

Sea-Cray-Fish  

155 

Smelts                                        252 

Rotalia                             12 

Sea-Cucumbers 

54 

Snails                                         207 

Rotifera                            173  —  177 

Sea-Devil 

254 

Snails   Pond                             207 

Rotifera  ndivivus        176 

Sea-Ears    

213 

Snake,  Common  Ringed        295 

Ruminantia                       384 

Sea-Eggs  .... 

•  •     53 

Snake-Tails                                 52 

Ruminants        384   385,  388,  390 

Sea-  Fan 

43 

Runners     148 

Sea-Gherkins    ... 

54 

Snakes,  Hooded                      292 

Sea-Gulls  
Sea-Hares 

354 
214 

Snakes,  Rattle  290 
Snipes                                        346 

SA3ELLA    67 

Sea-  Horses  ... 

..       261 

oolaster  papposa                        51 

Sabella  alveolaris  72 
Sable  Marten                           418 

Sea-jelly   
Sea-Mats 

:::  ^ 

Soldier  Termite  108 
Sole                                            256 

Sakis  ...                 .            436 

Sea-Moss  

...  185 

Solea      ...                                 256 

Salamander,  Terrestrial    ...  281 
Salamanders  277 

Sea-Mouse    
Sea-Nettles  

70 
30 

Solen  201 
Solipedes  ...                            382 

Sallee-man    ...          ..      ..32 

Sea-Otter  

419 

borex                                          428 

Sal  mo  fario                                252 

Sea-Pens     

43 

Sparrows                                   324 

Salmo  salar                               251 

Sea-Serpents 

288 

Spatularia                                  265 

Salmo  trtitta  252 

Sea-Swallows   

355 

Sphargis                                     306 

Salmon,  Common                  .  251 

Sea-Unicorn    

372 

Sphinx                                        120 

Salmon-Trout                           252 

Sea-Urchins 

Salmonidae                      .     ...  251 

Sea-Worms,  Long  

58 

Spider,  Bird  142 

Salmons                                  .  251 

Sea-  Wreaths 

28 

Spider-Flies                              134 

Salpa  miicronata                      190 

Seals 

426 

Salpas  189 

Semblis   

...    .   108 

Spider,  Mason                          142 

Salpians                                  .  189 

Semnopithici 

439 

Spider,  Mouse                          142 

Saltatoria                                   102 

Sepia 

Saltigrades    148 

Serpent  

..    .  287 

Spider,  Water                 146 

Sandgaper  200 
Sand-Hoppers  165 

Serpent,  Water    
Serpents,  Venomous  ... 

287 
288 

Spiders  60,140  —  149 
Spiders,  Leaping                      148 

Sand-  Pipers   343 

Serpulae       

72 

Spined  Venus  194 

Sand-Worm                                69 

Sertularia; 

29 

Sponges                                       15 

Setigera 

64 

Sardines   253 

Shad              

253 

Spoonbills                                  345 

Sarsia,  Tube-mouthed              31 

Sharks 

265  —  267 

Sprat                                            2=;^ 

Sarsia  tubulosa  31 

Shark,  Greenland    .. 

267 

Spring-tails                                 135 

Sauria         296  —  303 

Shark,  White 

267 

Squalus  carcharia;,                   267 

Saw-  Fishes                                268 

Sheat-  Fishes 

Saw-Flies  '  no 

Sheep  

393 

Squids       .                                 226 

Saxicava                        .            201 

Sheltopusik 

298 

Squids,  Hooked                       226 

Scabbard-Fishes                       246 

Ship-Worm 

Squilla  mantis                           163 

Scalaria  pretiosa  209 
Scallops                             192,  196 

Shooting-  Fishes  
Shrew 

241 
428 

Squirrel,  Flying  404 
Squirrels                                    402 

Scansores                                   331 

Shrikes 

Scinoidae    300 

Shrimps  

156,  163 

Stangers  ....                           .30 

Scincoidians                              297 

Shrimps,  Boring 

166 

Staphihnus                                    92 

Scinks                                        300 

Shrimps,  Fairy 

Sciuridae    402 

Shrimps,  Fresh-water 

167 

Star-  Fishes,  Snake-tailed         51 

Sciurus                    ...        .  402 

Shrimps,  Mantis 

163 

Starlings                                      324 

Scleroderms                              263 

164 

Scolopacida;  346 
Scolopax  gallinago  347 

Shrimps,  Salt-water  ... 
Siamang    

170 
441 

Stenops  tardigradus   436 
Stentor  polymorphus  7 

Scolopax  rusticola                    347 

Scolopendra  74 

Silk-Worm 

122 

Stinger,  Long  tailed    ..            30 

Scolopendra  electrica  75 

Silpha 

93 

Stingers    .  .                                 30 

Scolopendra,  Giant               .     75 

Siluroids 

Stomapoda                       163  —  165 

Scolopendra  gigas  75 

Silurus  electricus 

251 

Stone-borers  .       201 

Scolopendridae    74 

Silurus  glanis 

251 

Stone-  Flies    108 

Scomber  ductor                     .  244 

Storks                                          345 

Scomber  pelamys    244 

Siphonostomata 

172 

Stork,  White    345 

Scomber  scombrus  243 

Siphon-Worms 

55 

Stratyomys   131 

Scomber  thynnus            ...    .  243 

Strepselas                                  347- 

Strepsiptera                     116—  118 

Scorpion-  Flies     106 

Siren 

2  79 

Strix   318 

Scorpions                        ..  60,  139 

Siren  lacertina 

Stromb-Shells  ...                      212 

Scutella                                       53 

Sitta 

328 

Scutibranchiata   213 

Skates 

.    .  268 

Strombus  gigas    213 

Sea-  Anemones....                ,.     47 

Skip-jacks  

..    125 

Struthio....                          ...  740 

456 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


1 

Struthio  camelus 

age 
340 
340 
340 
264 
7 
116 
258 
64 
135 
357 
262 
5i 
240 
380 
322 
358 
262 
323 
244 
330 
236 

131 
280 
245 
165 
429 
409 
144 
56 
38i 
148 
96 
215 
248 
96 
56 
no 
327 
72 
67 

202 

168 
108 
108 

Tipula 

Pace 
130 

/ 
Vermiform  Carnivora  
Vermin   
Vertebrata     
Vespa 

age- 

4i5 
4i5 
230 
"3 
432 
387 
209 

292 
292 
292 
420 
421 

6,  7 
7 
31? 

321 
427 
132 

112 
126 

III 

in 

127 

i46 
90 
417 
325 
9s 
209 

!52 

374 
131 
108 
253 
255 
197 
419 
148 
414 
367 
347 
99 
167 

332 
63 

Struthio  rhea  
Stru  thionida;  
Sturgeon  
Stylonychia  my  tilus  
Stylops  
Sucking-Fish  
Suctoria  

Tipula  oleacea  
Titlarks 

..  131 
321 

324 

Tits     
Toads 

-.  325 
285 

Vespertilio  pipestrella    
Vicunia  • 

Torpedos    
Tortoise,  Galapagos    

..  268 
..  307 
306 

Violet-Shells.... 

Viper  
Viper,  Horned 

Sugar-  Lice  
Sula 

Tortoise,  Pond  
Tortoise,  River 

•  •  304 
304 

Viperus  berus  
Viverra  
Viverra  ichneumon  
Vol  vox  globator  
Vorticellaria  convallaria    .  .  . 
Vultures  

WAGTAIL  .. 

Sun-Fish 

Sun-star  
Surmullet 

Tortoise,  Sea    
Tortoise,  Soft  
Tortoises,  Marsh  

•  •  304 
..  306 
..  306 

Sus  
Swallows 

Tortrices    
Toucans 

-.  123 
334 

Swell-Fish  
Swifts 

Toxotes  

..   241 
96 

Trachelides 

Tree-Hoppers 

Walrus 

Syndactylse  
Syn^nathidae 

Trichecus     

427 

Wasp-  Flies    .. 
Wasps 

Trichoptera 

TABANUS     
Tadpoles 

Tridacne    
Trimerans,  Coleopterous, 
Tringa    

..   198 
39-98 
•  •  343 

ila 

Water-Boatmen  

Water-Bugs 

Water-Fleas  

Trionyx  

Water-Measurers 
Water-  Mole 

Taenioids  

Talitrus  .... 

Trochilus   
Troglodytes 

..  329 

Water-Scorpions  
Water-Spider 

Talpa 

Tamanoir  
Tapestry  Spiders 

Troglodytes  niger   
Troglodytes  satyrus   

••  443 
-.   443 

Water-Tigers    .. 

Weasel          

Tape-Worms 

Weavers 

Tapir  
Tarantula 

Trout,  Common  
Trunk-  Fish 

"^ 

Weevils    

Wentle-traps  
West  Indian  Crab 

Tsetse  
Tube  Hydra 

-   *% 

Tectibranchiata  214, 
Tenches  

Whale    373, 
Whame-Flies    
White  Ants   :  

Tube-weavers  

..   144 

Tenebrio  moiitor  
Tenise 

Tubicola     
Tubiculous  Annelidans 

..     64 

Whitebait 

Tubipora  musica  
Tubiteles 

..     44 

Whiting 

Tenuirostres  

Wing-Shells     

Terebella 

28 

Wolf 

Terebellse  
Teredo  

Tubulibranchiata  
Tunicata  18 

..  213 
8-192 
•  •  243 

::5 

Wolf-Spiders    

Wolverine  
Wombat 

Termes 

Termes  bellicosus  
Termites 

Turbellaria    
Turbot 

Woodcock  

Wood-eaters  
Wood-Lice    

Terns  
Terrapene  Europcea  

355 
306 
306 
306 
262 

Turkeys  

..  .335 

Turnstones    
Turris 

::*I 

Woodpeckers      

Testudo  

Turtle,  Leather-backed... 
Turtles 

..  206 

Wrasses            

235 
321 

332 

170 
204 

~>9 

367 

383 
37 

3^ 
36 
298 

Tetradons 

Wrens 

Tetramerans  
Tetramerans,  Coleopterous. 
Tetrao  
Thaumantias  
Thread-spinners  
Thrushes  

89 
97 

337 
32 
146 

^21 

UNIO  

•   T97 

Wrynecks  

"VIPHOSURI 

Upupa 

...  33° 

:::  „§? 

Urchin,  Green-pea  
Urodela 

j\.     Xiphias 

Xylophagi 

Thylacinus  cynocephalus  ... 
Thymellus  

367 
252 

243 
135 
135 
424 
367 
424 
124 
124 

124 

Ursus  

..  413 
...  413 

YAK 

Ursus  maritimus  

Thynnus  
Thysanoura  134, 
Ticks 

Urtica  marinas  30 

VAGABOND  ARACH- 
NIDANS      .       .       .  IAS 

*\™  
\  unx  

VEBRA  WOLF 

Tiger,  Australian  
Tiger  Royal 

Z,     Zebra    

Vaginicola  crystallina    ... 
Vampire        

7 

•  432 

Tinea  

Zoophytes,  Anthozoic    
Zoophytes,  Campanularian  . 
Zootoca  ...,           

Tineae 

Velella  scaphoidea 

32 

Venus-Shells  

...   194 

14  DAY  USE 

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LD2lA-6m-'7,'75 

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